THE PEOPLE

CUSTOMS AND RITUALS

Most Hindu customs and rituals are the remnants of what are known as the samskaras laid down by the smritis. Every Hindu, according to the Dharmashastra has to go through a number of samskaras which are considered indispensable. They consist of oblations to fire, customary offerings to goddesses. They are considered obligatory for both males and females in order to sanctify the body and have to be performed at prescribed times and in a prescribed order. In the case of women and Shudras, the Vedic mantras are set aside and Purunik mantras are resorted to.

The number of these samskaras differs according to different authorities. But sixteen of them are regarded as the minimum. The more important ones refer to puberty, pregnancy, birth, marriage and death. Puberty samskaras were once very scrupulously observed among the Hindus but now scant attention is paid to them The chief puberty samskaras are those in connection with a girls' first menstruation. During the period of menstruation, a woman is in a state of taboo. She may not touch anybody, draw water or sleep on a cot made of cotton thread. This state of semi-seclusion lasts for a period of from five to eleven days according to specific caste practices. But usually it is three days.

When child marriages were in vogue, the occurrence of the signs of puberty was usually the notice for the performance of religious ceremonies for handing over the girl to her husband. The husband was sent for and in higher castes, a ceremony called ritushanti was performed which involved special mantras and a fire sacrifice. Then the garbhadhana samskara or the foetuslying ceremony initiating the consummation of marriage was performed.

It is the duty of a wife to bear a child and all sorts of tricks are resorted to avoid barrenness and to secure a child, particularly a male child. Several samskaras are prescribed to that end. One of them is punsavana. It is performed to turn the foetus into a male in the third month of pregnancy. Anavalobhana is a samskara which is performed in the third month in order to avert a miscarriage. Simantonnayana is parting of the hair on the head of the pregnant woman by the husband in the 4th, 6th or the 8th month of her first pregnancy by reciting mantras to secure long life for the child. Vishnubali is a sacrifice to Vishnu in the 7th month of pregnancy.

Besides these samskaras, a number of magico religious practices may be properly resorted to with similar ends in view. A woman in pregnancy is considered to be in a state of taboo and particularly liable to the influence of magic and in some respects dangerous to others. She is exempt from the observance of fasts and her longings (dohale) are carefully sought to be satisfied. She is allowed any food she takes a fancy for and a feast (dohalejevan) is held specially in the seventh month when she is offered sweets and all sorts of rich food. She is subjected to a number of restrictions with a view to avoiding anything that might prejudice or retard her delivery. Superstitions to that effect widely prevail. She should not visit her neighbours' houses or sleep in open space. She must avoid all red clothes or red things of any kind such as are suggestive of blood till the third or fourth month when conception is certain. She must not cross running water as it might cause premature delivery, nor should she go near a she-buffalo or a mare, lest delivery may be prolonged since a mare takes 12 months to deliver a foal. She must not finish any work such as sewing during the pregnancy, begun previously, nor should her husband thatch the house or repair the axe. An eclipse is considered particularly dangerous to the unborn child and she must not leave the house during its length. Under no circumstances, must she touch any cutting instrument as it might cause her child to be born mutilated.

A young wife generally goes to her parents for her first confinement. In rural areas where the services of a trained midwife are not available, generally during the later stages of the labour, !he barber's wife watches over the case, but as delivery approaches, she hands over the patient to the recognised midwife, usually a Basorin or a Chamarin. Among the people of the backward classes and tribes, circumstances force them to give scant attention to delivery and women are required to get back to their work within a few days of the birth of child. Among the more delicate women of the higher castes, they are carefully looked after.

When a child is born the event is heralded by the beating of a brass tray to scare away evil spirits. Substances such as mustard-seed, ajwan, rock salt, wheat-bran, hair etc., all of which are known to be powerful averters of evil, may be waved seven times around the head of the mother and the child and then consumed in the brazier which stands in the lying-in room near or under the patient's cot. Among agricultural communities, the child is usually placed after birth in a winnowing fan. The placenta and the naval cord are separated by means of a razor, handed over to the midwife for which she receives a small reward and they are buried in the corner of the lying-in room in a shallow hole. The child is then bathed with warm water and when dry, fumigated with the smoke of ajwan seeds thrown on the brazier in the lying-in room and is rubbed over with castor oil to keep out the cold. Soon after birth the jatakarma ceremony may be performed. There is a common belief among the people that the first ten days in particular, following the birth of a child, are full of danger to the new-born and the mother and precaution has to be taken to guard them against evil influences. Among higher castes, every evening, the family priest recites shantipath or ramaraksha over a pinch of ashes or angara which is then rubbed on the brow of the mother and the child. Among some lower castes, the room is guarded from evil spirit by a line of ashes drawn across the door and a leather rope used for binding the plough is tied round the cot.

The goddess of birth is said to be Satvai who is generally worshipped on the 5th and the 6th day after birth with offerings of flowers and dishes. On this day, Satvai is supposed to write the destiny of the child on the forehead. Giving a name to a child is a ceremonial rite. This is done on some auspicious day after the tenth day, usually on the 12th. The ceremony varies greatly among different castes. In the higher castes, it is somewhat elaborate and among the lower quite simple. A Brahman is called in who proposes certain names which are considered auspicious in view of the astrological circumstances of the child-birth. The ceremony of placing the child in the cradle takes place in the evening when invited friends and kinswomen gather, each with some presents for the mother and the child.

Piercing of the earlobes called Karnavedha is a ceremony that is performed among the higher castes on the morning of the name-giving day. Nose-piercing is sometimes performed in the case of girls at the same time as ear-piercing. Although wearing of the nath (nose-ring) is common among all better class Hindus, no ceremonial feeling is attached to nose piercing. A ceremony called annaprashana, first feeding of the child, is also held among the well off Hindus when the child is six or eight months old at which the maternal uncle of the child officiates as the chief guest who feeds kheer to the child with a gold ring. The rite of chudakarma or chaul as it is called in Marathi means shaving of the head but for a tuft of hair at the top is also a samskara. It is usually performed in the third year and not delayed beyond the fifth year. Nowadays, it is disregarded altogether among modern families. As a purificatory rite it is also prescribed for girls but not observed and in the case of boys, it is nominally gone through at the time of the thread-ceremony. Among backward communities it is called javal. It is believed that the original hair the child is born with is impure and must be removed with a ceremony of religious significance.

The Hindus who claim to belong to the three varnas viz.. Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya regard upanayana, known in common parlance as munja as perhaps the most important of all samskaras for boys. It principally consists of investiture of the boy with the sacred thread which is worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm crossing the body to the hip. It is said to bring about the second or spiritual birth in the case of the three varnas thus making members of these varnas dvijas. (twice-born). For a Brahmana, the ceremony must be performed in the 8th year from conception, for a Kshatriya in the eleventh year and for a Vaishya in the 12th and must not be delayed in the case of any of them beyond the 24th The important ritualistic observances to be followed in the samskara are (1) Sankalpa, (2) Agnisthapana, (3) Acharyavar-nadi, (4) Upanayana, (5) Savitri-upadesha and (6) Vratabandha.

The Upanayana and Samavartana ceremonies once stood for the Vedic Hindus as the marks of initiation and completion of Vedic studies But the significance has been totally lost now. The upanayana ceremony is of late, only an occasion of social celebration than an essential ritual. Even among Brahmans, it is often found neglected or postponed and then hurriedly gone through prior to marriage as it is believed that entering grinasthashrama without going through brahmacharyashrama is a gross religious irregularity. Even as a social event, it is now wound up in a day whereas it took four days formerly. The samavartana, known in common parlance as sodamunja marks the completion of the vedic studies which in fact are never begun, only a few days intervening between the upanayana and the samavartana.

The marriage ceremony marks an individual's entry into grihasthashrama among Hindus and as a samskara, it could only be established after going through certain rituals which have their basis in the grihyasutras. It is generally considered obligatory for every Hindu to marry for it is believed that one's progeny is considerably connected with and necessary for happiness both in this world and the other. The birth of a son enables one to obtain moksha and it is conceived to be particularly contributory towards helping the father to pay off his debt to his ancestors, pitririna, Moreover, the Hindu law givers are particular about the marriage of every woman also. As Manu lays down, the vivaha of maidens should be performed as soon as they attain marriageable age and the father or other guardian of a girl who is not careful enough to give a girl in marriage in proper time commits a great sin.

Many customs and superstitious beliefs gather round the last Hindu samskara known as antyeshti or the funeral rite. Those who follow Vedic or Puranik rites usually cremate their dead. Backward castes either burn or bury and some burn the married dead and bury the unmarried. Dhors, Mahars and Mangs invariably bury their dead. Jains cremate while Lingayats bury. Some tribals have peculiar funerary customs. Sanyasis receive a ceremonial burial after death. A samadhi is erected over their remains. Infants who have not cut their teeth, and among back ward classes persons who die of leprosy or smallpox are buried. When fuel is scarce and dear, poorer sections of the community often bury their dead; in other cases Hindu dead bodies are generally burnt. The bones and ashes of the dead are consigned to the sea or a river and sometimes a part of the remains are thrown into the Ganga. Except that they do not use mantras, the main funerary observances of the lower class Hindus are similar to those in a Vedic cremation.

When a person is about to die, his nearest kin, son or wife sits close to him and comforts him assuring that his family would be well cared for. A small piece of gold and a tulsi leaf are put in his mouth. A few drops of Ganga water, usually preserved in every respectable Hindu household, is also poured in the mouth. When life is extinct, the body is removed from the bed and laid on the ground with the head northwards. The ground is washed with cowdung and water, holy water is sprinkled on it and a wreath of tulsi leaves is placed round the neck of the dead. The chief mourner takes a purificatory bath while the priest chants some mantras. If the deceased is an ascendent, the chief mourner and other mourners of the same degree are also expected to have their heads and moustaches shaved. Having done this, the chief mourner offers oblations of riceballs in honour of the dead. These are called pindas. The corpse is bathed in warm water and wrapped up in a new dhotar or lugade according as the dead person is a male or a female. Women who die before their husbands are dressed in a green sari and bodice, their brow is marked with vermilion, their hair is decked with flowers and some of their usual ornaments are put on. Widows receive no such honours and are treated in the same way as men. All the relations present, men and women, make a bow to the dead. Finally, the corpse is laid on a ladder like bier, on the back with the face to the sky, is shrouded in a new white sheet and then borne by four persons on their shoulders to the cremation ground. The priest and the chief mourner (who holds in his hand an earthen fire-pot hanging from a string) lead the funeral party. The body is released from the bier and laid on the pyre or a pile of wood. Each of the mourners symbolically puts a piece of fuel on the pyre. With the help of the live char-coal that was brought along, a fire called mantragni is prepared and the chief mourner ignites the pyre with it. When the body is almost consumed by the fire the chief mourner carries an earthen pot (the one in which fire was brought) filled with water on his shoulders and walks thrice round the burning pyre. A man walks with him piercing with a stone called the ashma or life-stone a hole in the jar out of which water spouts round the burning corpse. He finally throws the trickling water pot backwards over the shoulders spilling the water over the ground. Then, he pours libations of water mixed with sesamum on the ashma to cool the spirit of the dead which has been heated by the fire. The ashma is carefully preserved for ten days. The mourners also pour such water on the ashma. When the body is completely consumed, the party returns. During the first ten days, all closely related persons belonging to the family observe mourning called sutak.

Obsequies: The spot on which the deceased breathed his last is smeared with cowdung and a lighted lamp with a single wick is set on it. Generally on the third day, the rite of asthisanchayana (bone gathering) is performed and the chief mourner initiates the post-funeral rites on the day, the ashma being attended to as representative of the deceased. The shraddhas and the funeral obsequies are the only ceremonies performed for the salvation of the ancestors. A special ceremony called narayana bali may be performed for those that have died of accident but in the case of one dying childless, no departure from the ordinary rites takes place. The funeral obsequies are performed during the first 13 days after death. Oblations of rice are offered every day in consequence of which the soul of the deceased is supposed to attain a spiritual body limb by limb till on the 13th day, it is enabled to start on its journey. Oblations are also offered on the 27th day and sometimes thereafter on the day of the death once in every month for a year of which the six-monthly and the bharani oblations i.e., the shraddha performed on the 5th of the dark half of the month of Bhadrapada are essential. After a year has elapsed, the oblations of the first anniversary day are offered with great solemnity. The annual shraddha is performed on the day corresponding to the day of death in the latter half of the month of Bhadrapada. A shraddha is also performed on the anniversary day. While performing the shraddha for one's deceased's father offerings are also made to other ancestors and to deceased collaterals. Women dying within the lifetime of their husbands have special oblations offered to them during their husband's lifetime. This takes place on the 9th day of the pitripaksha which is known as avidhavanavami.

Omens: Hindus of almost all castes believe in omens and think that the result of every undertaking is foreshadowed by certain signs and hints. The sight of a corpse or flesh is a lucky omen except with Lads and Sonars. To Gosavis and Bairagis, salt, earth and the potter are inauspicious but not to other castes. While a Brahman with a head cloth on his head and his caste-marks drawn brings good luck, misfortune is the result if he is seen bare-headed. A married women is lucky to meet but not a widow. A pot full of water is a good thing to see, but an empty one is bad. If a man has a twitching of the right eye. the omen is good, but not so if it occurs in his left eye. With the women the case is reverse. A sweeper bearing night-soil is a lucky man to meet, but a Teli with an oil-pot is unlucky. Should as spider cross one's hand, it is a good omen, but a house lizard falling on one's body is bad. A single sneeze when a person is speaking denotes bad luck to him, but one more sneeze will mean good luck. A deer, a blue jay, peacock or ichneumon seen on the left hand side are all harbingers of good as also a mongoose, a cow with a calf and an ox but woe to the man whose path is crossed by a crow, a cat, or who hears a dog howling or an owl hooting. A wild parrot perching on the head or shoulder, the sound of joyful music, dreaming a good dream or meeting a corpse borne by four men are all omens of good import; a lamp falling, a man's pugree or a women's toe-ring coming off or a ring-dove entering a house are events fraught with evil consequences. If a child is born with the umbilical cord round its neck as a halter, it is believed that he ended his former life as a prisoner in jail.

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