THE PEOPLE

CASTES

The Hindus are often referred to as a single community, but in fact the Hindus are found divided into very many differentiated groups which are known as castes; even among the castes, there are a number of sub-castes. As a result of the changes in Government policy, the Census enumeration has ceased to take recognition of these castes since 1941. However, the old Gazetteer of Ahmadnagar district quotes profusely from the Census Report of 1881 from which it is clear that the Hindu castes and sub-castes mentioned in it are numerous and although since that Census the rigidity of caste has been considerably reduced, their different practices and characteristics remain and they are significant enough to the students of sociology and economics. The various functions assigned to the castes and sub-castes have fallen into disuse because of the transformation that has slowly but surely enveloped social life. Now, a member of any caste is free to follow any calling or profession and yet he has not ceased to be a member of his caste in private and personal life. The information in this connection, as recorded in the old Gazetteer, is therefore reproduced below with necessary and desirable alterations.

Brahmans: Brahmans, according to the 1881 Census, included fifteen classes with a strength of 32,586 or 4.51 per cent of the then Hindu population. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR BRAHMANS, 1881

Deshasths: Deshasths, meaning either local or upland Brahmans, are found all over the district. Each village has at least two Brahman houses, the village priest's or Joshi's and the village clerk's or Kulkarni's. They seem to be very early settlers. The word " Deshasth ", according to some authorities, means local, according to others it means upland to distinguish them from the Konkanasths or Chitpavans of the coast. The Ahmadnagar Deshasths have no tradition or memory of any former settlement. Unlike Chitpavans they have no regular surnames, their family-names being either place or calling names. The names both for men and for women do not differ from those in use among Pune and Satara Deshasths. Their family-stocks are Agasti, Angiras, Atri, Bhrigu, Kashyap, Vasishth and Vishvamitra. Their family-gods are Bhairavnath of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Bhavani of Tuljapur, Ganapati, Khandoba of Jejuri, Narsinh of Pune, and Vyankatesh of Tirupati in North Arkot. They belong to two divisions, Rigvedis and Yajurvedis, called after the Vedas which they study and follow. Of Yajurvedi there is a further division called Kanvas. Yajurvedis are also called Madhyandins because they perform their religious ceremonies, including the prayers or sandhya, at noon instead of at dawn as is done by Rigvedis. The two divisions eat together but do not inter-marry. As a class Deshasths are dark, strong and somewhat coarse-featured Brahmans with round and flabby cheeks, the women being fairer and shorter than the men. Their Marathi differs from classical Marathi by the use of the lingual instead of the dental n, and by changing the short a of roots to i long when the termination to of the present tense is added, as kari-i-to instead of karato, he does. This practice is commoner among women than among men.

Deshasth Brahmans rank as the head of local Hindus. They dine with other Brahmans, but on certain occasions treat them as inferior. Deshasth will never ask a Chitpavan or a Devarukha to dine at his house on a shraddha feast or to officiate at any of his ceremonies, while a Chitpavan has no objection to ask a Deshasth. They are held in respect by other Brahmans, and, as the possessors of all religious knowledge, and the chief and indispensable persons in all religious ceremonies, they have considerable importance among all Hindus. They are either Smarts, that is, followers of Shankaracharya, the apostle of the doctrine that the soul and the universe are one, or Bhagvats who hold that the soul and the universe are distinct. They worship all Brahmanic gods and goddesses, and keep the ordinary fasts and feasts; they make pilgrimages to Alandi, Allahabad, Banaras, Gaya, Jejuri, Nasik, Pandharpur, Rameshvar and Tuljapur. Their customs are the same as those of the Chitpavan Brahmans of Pune or the Deshasths of Sholapur, and they perform their ceremonies according to the ritual laid down in the Yajurved.

Devrukhas: Devrukhas, or Brahmans of Devrukh in Ratnagiri, are found in Parner, Shevgaon, Kopargaon and Akola. They are not permanent settlers and are employed in the revenue and judicial service of Government. They say that their ancestors were Deshasths before they went to Ratnagiri. Formerly the Deshasths thought it unlucky to dine with them; but this feeling is passing away. Devrukhas have no divisions and they marry among themselves. Their surnames are Bhole, Dange, Karulkar, Pimputkar, Bhatlekar, Devdhekar, Bhadsavale, Teredesai, Shitut, Nimbkar, Veerkar, Ghondse, Joshi, Junekar, Mule, Padvale, Shitup and Sobalkar. They belong to fifteen family-stocks or gotras of which the most important are Atri, Bharadvaj, Gargya, Kashyap, Kaundinya, Kaushik, Jamadagni, Shandilya, Savanak and Vasishth. Members of the same family-stock cannot inter-marry, but sameness of surname is no bar to marriage. They look like Deshasths and both men and women are strong, healthy and somewhat dark. They speak correct Marathi. They are Smarts or followers of the doctrine of Shankaracharya that the soul and the universe are one. They have no special religious or social customs. In all these points they follow

TABLE No. 9—TALUKA-WISE SCHEDULED TRIBES CLASSIFIED BY LITERACY IN 1971, AHMADNAGAR DISTRICT

continued..

local Deshasths or the Devrukhas of Ratnagiri and Pune. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men.

Govardhans: Govardhan or Golak Brahmans are scattered in small numbers all over the district. They perhaps take their name from Govardhan or old Nasik near which many hold posts as village priests. The name of Golak was perhaps given to them by later Brahmans because they continued to allow widow marriage. They are divided into two divisions. The two divisions eat together and inter-marry. Both are also called Gomukh or cow-mouth Brahmans. They do not differ from Deshasths in appearance, language or dress. At other times they call Yajurvedi Brahmans to whom they say their fore-fathers mortgaged their Brahmanical privilege of priesthood. They rank next to the regular Brahmans who are careful to debar them from the Brahmanical privileges of giving or receiving gifts danapratigraha and the study of the Veds—vedadhyapana.

Gujaratis: Gujarati Brahmans, including Audichs, Nagars and Shrimalis, are found in small numbers in the town of Nagar and in the Parner, Shrigonda, Karjat, Kopargaon, Sangamner and Akola sub-divisions. They remain in the district only ten months in the year, returning to Gujarat in October. The names in common use among men are Daulatram, Jeram, Jivram, Pitambar, Purshotam and Veniram; and among women Gangabai, Khushalbai, Nathibai, Palibai, Punjibai and Radhabai. Like other Gujarat Brahmans they have no surnames, but sameness of stock-name either on the father's or on the mother's side bars marriage. Among the Trivdimevdas the leading stock-names are Bhardvaj, Shandilya and Vasishtha. At home they speak Gujarati, and abroad use a rough Marathi with a Gujarati accent and a large mixture of Gujarati words. They are of middle height and strongly made, and in complexion either dark or fair. Most have straight and sharp noses, and thick face hair. They are a religious class, respecting other Brahmans besides their priest who belongs to their own caste. They are Yajurvedis and consider Shankaracharya, the pontiff of Smart Hindus, as their religious guide. They worship Ganapati, Mahadev and Vishnu and make pilgrimages to Banaras and Rameshvar. They have great faith in sooth-saying and some of them are skilled astrologers. They also believe in witch-craft. The rich perform all the regular sixteen sacraments, the rest keep only three, thread-girding, marriage and death. Polygamy is allowed and practised and polyandry is unknown. They keep to the Gujarat wedding customs which differ from Deccan customs chiefly by having instead of an altar or bahule, a square with a pile of red and white striped pots at each of its corners. Like local Brahmans they burn their dead, except children of less than a year. Unlike local Brahmans they carry the fire on a cowdung-cake instead of in a fire-pot and all the male relations of the deceased shave the moustache. Though so small in number, they form a distinct community. Small breaches of caste rules are punished by fines, and serious offences by loss of caste. The fines are generally spent on a caste-feast.

Jais: Jais are found in small numbers in all sub-divisions except in Akola. They are like Marathas, some of them dressing in Maratha and others in Brahman fashion. Except that they cannot act as priests, they follow the same callings as Brahmans. In customs and religion they differ little from Brahmans except that Vedic texts are not repeated at their ceremonies. The classical Sanskrit text is used instead of the Vedic, and all Brahman rites are performed. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle their social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men instructed and advised by learned and respectable local Brahmans.

Jambus: Jambus are found only in the Ahmadnagar sub-division. They are said to have come from Jambusar in Broach, but when and why is not known. They are also called Khisti or money-lending Brahmans from their former occupation of money-lending.

Kannadas: Kannada and Telang Brahmans come from South India and are not settled in the district. They speak Marathi introducing into their speech many foreign words and phrases. In religion they are Rigvedis, and their customs and ceremonies are the same as those of Rigvedi Deshasths.

Karhadas: Karhadas, from Karhad in Satara at the meeting of the Krishna and Koyna rivers, are chiefly Government servants posted in Ahmadnagar city. Most are in the district only for a time but a few are settled. They have no sub-divisions and marry among themselves and occasionally with Deshasths and Konkanasths. The names for men and women do not differ from those among Konkanasths, and their surnames are Bakre, Devasthali, Dhavale, Bakhale, Dhore, Ghante, Gune, Gurjar, Haigriv, Karkirde, Karmarkar, Kibe, Shahane and Shevade. They have ten family-stocks which are the same as the Chitpavan stocks, the chief being Atri, Jamadagni, Kashyap, Kutsa and Naidhruv, and families belonging to the same stock do not intermarry. Though a few are fair and handsome, as a class they are darker, less well-featured and sturdier than the Konkanasths. Their speech is Deccani Marathi. They are Smarts holding that God and the soul are one, and paying equal honour to Shiv, Vishnu, and other Brahman gods. They principally worship the goddess Bhavani. Their family priest belongs to their own caste, and their religious teacher is Shankaracharya of Shankeshvar in Kolhapur. In religion and customs they do not differ from the local Deshasths who eat and occasionally marry with them. They are one of the four classes who form the local Brahman community, and settle social disputes at meetings of the men of all four classes.

Konkanasths: Konkanasths, also called Chitpavan, apparently Chiplun Brahmans, are found in small numbers all over the district. They are not residents and have lately come in search of employment. They are fair and thrifty like the Chitpavans of Pune from whom they differ little either in appearance or in religious or social customs. They are divided into Rigvedis and Apasthambhs or Yajurvedis. On account of the legend in the Sahyadri Khand in which the name Chitpavan means pure from the pyre, and that they are descended from foreigners, they prefer being called Konkanasths to being called Chitpavans.

Marwaris: Marwaris, or Marwar Brahmans, are found in almost all parts of the district except in Shrigonda and Karjat. They belong to the Panchgaud or northern group of Brahmans, and are called Chhadnyati or more commonly Chhanyati Brahmans. as they include six divisions, Dayam or Davich otherwise called Dayave. Gujargaud, Gaud Sarasvat, Rhandelval or Gaud, Parikh and Shikhaval. These divisions eat together and form one community but do not inter-marry. They came into the district about two hundred years ago as priests to Meshri Vanis who were already settled in the district. The names in former use among men and women were like those among Osval and Meshri Marwaris, Hukumchand, Hemchand and Ritkarna. Now they are called after gods and sacred places as Hari, Narayan and Ramchandra among men; and Ganga, Sarasvati and Yamuna among women. Maharaji or sir and pandyaji or learned sir are added to men's names and ai, bai and mai to women's names. Each division is marked by different surnames. Those of the Dayaves are Chapade, Kakade, Malavadi and Murdel; those of the Gauds, Bayadajoshi, Baval Preyath, Bavalya Byas, Bhadanyajoshi, Byas, Gurav Pradhan, Haritval, Kalavade, Kata, Nagvinjoshi and Panchlungya; those of the Gujar-gauds. Chobe, Nabarajoshi and Panchariranjejoshi; those of the Parikhs, Agnotistivade, Baragajoshi, Gavjabora, Golyabyas, Kashapa-joshi, Khatadebyas, Madatval Tivadi, Mudakyabyas, Takingyabora, and Tivadabaya; those of the Sarasvats, Bodavajhe, Bhandiye, Guugile, Gurave, Kayalijoshi, Ralani, Lodvajhe, Motjoshi, Pathak, Samudra-joshi, Sarsuvajoshi, Tavanyajoshi, Tugnait and Upadhe; and those of the Shikavals, Dukhartivade, Pandit, Tavadinagale and Vajhe. Their family-gods are Balaji of Tirupati, Devi and Suryanarayan; and their family-stocks are Bharadvaj, Kashyap, Vasishth and Vatsa. Members of the same family-stock cannot inter-marry, but sameness of surnames is no bar to marriage. They are like Meshri Marwari Vanis; their home-tongue is Marwari and they speak a corrupt Marathi abroad. They rank with Deccan Brahmans and never eat with them though each may take water from the other. They are religious, worshipping their family-gods and keeping all Brahmanic rites. They have a priest of their own, who officiate at their marriage and other ceremonies. They revere Deshasth Brahmans as a class and give them money-gifts or dakshinas, but do not ask them to conduct their ceremonies. Some are Smarts and others are Bhagvats. They worship all Brahmanic gods and visit all Hindu sacred places. Their chief holidays are Gangor and Shilasaptami in April, Akshatritiya in May, Chhoti and Baditiths in July and August, Dasara in September, Sankrant in January, and Basantpanchami or Shimga in February-March; and their fasts are the lunar elevenths, ekadashis, and fourteenths, pradoshas, Ramnavmi in April, Gokulashtami in August, Ganesh chaturthi in September, and Shiv's Night or Mahashivratra in February-March. Besides these, the pious among them keep fortnightly fasts or chandrayan vrats, when they eat morsels of solidified milk increasing the quantity as the moon waxes from one to fifteen morsels and again reducing the quantity from fifteen morsels to one as the moon wanes. Their religious teacher is a Dravid Brahman of the Smart sect. Their pontiff is Shankaracharya of the Shringeri monastery in north Mysore. They believe in witchcraft and sooth-saying and in the power of evil spirits. Early marriage and polygamy are allowed and practised; widow marriage is forbidden, and polyandry is unknown. They keep the sixteen Hindu sacraments or sanskars, except the ceremony when a girl comes of age. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men. Breaches of social discipline are punished with loss of caste for a time or for ever. They have no head-man, and do not refer caste matters to their pontiff Shankaracharya.

Pardeshis: Pardeshis or north Indian Brahmans are found scattered in search of work over the district especially in the town of Ahmadnagar. They have come lately into the district from north India in search of work and many of them when they have enough to live on, retire to northern India. All are of the Gaud or northern stock including Kanaujs, Kasths, Sarasvats and Sarvaryas. They claim to belong to the Angirasas, Brahaspati, Bharadvaj, Kashyap, Kattyayan. and Vasishth family-stocks. The names in common use among men are Dayashankar, Dvarkashankar, Devidin, Ganjacharna, Gaurishankar, Girdharilal, Gangadin, Hanumanprasad, Ramprasad and Shivaprasad; and among women, Dhondabai, Gangabai, Radhibai, Sanhabai, Sitabai and Yamunabai. The words Maharaj, Lalasaheb, Babusaheb and Panditji are added to men's names; and Bayasaheb, Kakisaheb and Maisaheb, to women's names. Their surnames are Agnihotri, Bachape, Chaube, Dave, Mishra, Pade, Pathak, Shukla, Tivari and Trivedi. Sameness of stock but not sameness of surnames is a bar to marriage. They speak Hindi at home and a corrupt Marathi abroad. Their family-gods are Mahadev and Vishnu whose shrines are both at Banaras and Oudh. They are divided into Gaud, Kanauj, Maithil Sarasvat, and Utkal, who neither eat together not inter-marry, except that if a girl gives a large enough dowry, she can be married to a boy belonging to a higher sub-division. Of these, the Kanaujas alone are found in Ahmadnagar. They are again divided into Rigvedis, Samavedis. Atharvavedis and Yajurvedis, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. As a class they are wheat-coloured, tall, strong and well-built and can easily be known from the people of the district by their size, their fine features, and their martial bearing. They rank with Deccan Brahmans but do not eat together, though they do not object to drink water at each other's hands. They are religious, following the Veds, worshipping all Brahmanic gods, and keeping all Hindu fasts and feasts. They have their own family priests but ask Deshasths to conduct their ceremonies which differ little from those of Deshasths except that they worship the goddess Satvai on the sixth instead of on the fifth day after the birth of a child. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men. Breaches of social discipline are punished with loss of caste which the offender is seldom again allowed to join. They recognise the Shankaracharya as their high priest, but never refer social questions for his decision.

Shenvis: Shenvis are found in small numbers in Ahmadnagar, Parner, Shrigonda, Jamkhed and Shevgaon. They are the descendants of Sharmas, and are said to have been brought by Parashuram, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, from Bengal to help him in performing ceremonies, in honour of his ancestors. They settled in Goa in the southern Konkan, and are said to have left Goa and passed chiefly to Belgaum and Dharwar in the sixteenth or seventeenth century in consequence of the Portuguese hatred of Hindu rites. The Ahmadnagar Shenvis are new-comers probably within the last fifty years and live as Government servants and traders. They are divided into Shenvis or Sarasvats, Sastikars, Bardeshkars, Kudaldeshkars and Bhalavalkars. In the Konkan these divisions neither eat together nor inter-marry, but in the Deccan, where all are strangers, they eat together though they do not inter-marry. In appearance, house, dress, food, drink and character they do not differ from their brethren in Kanara or Goa. They are followers of the Rigved and are either Smarts, that is, believers in the doctrine that the soul and the universe are one, or Bhagvats who hold that the soul and the universe are distinct. Their religious teacher who belongs to their own caste is the high priest of the Sonavda monastery in Savantvadi. Their social and religious customs do not differ from those of the Shenvis of Kanara and Goa. They are bound together by a strong caste feeling, and settle social disputes at caste councils. The decisions of their religious teacher are final in caste matters, and persons who do not obey him are put out of caste.

Tirguls: Tirguls, or betel-vine growers, are found in Ahmadnagar, Parner and Jamkhed. The name Tirgul or three-fold is locally derived from the Sanskrit trikula or three families. The story is that a Brahman married three wives, a Brahman, a Kshatriya and a Vaishya, whose descendants formed the class of Tirguls. Whence and when they came into the district is not known. They have no divisions. Their surnames are Arenkelle, Arole, Bhinge, Javalkar, Kogule, Mahajane, Mahashabde, Maindarge and Supekar. Their names do not differ from those in use among local Brahmans. They belong to five family-stocks or gotras, Bharadvaj, Kaushik, Kashyap, Lohit and Napa. Persons belonging to the same family-stock cannot inter-marry. They speak corrupt Marathi. They are Smarts and worship all Brahmanic gods, and keep the ordinary fasts and feasts. Their social and religious customs are the same as the local Deshasth customs. They study the Veds and follow the tenets of the Yajurved. They have a caste council at which social disputes are settled.

Vidurs: Vidurs are found all over the district except in Parner, Shevgaon and Akola. Like Jais they follow the same occupation as ordinary Brahmans except the priesthood, and are identical with them in appearance, character, customs, and religion.

Kayasth Prabhus: Kayasth Prabhus are found in the town of Ahmadnagar and the sub-division of Jamkhed. They have come from Kolaba and Thana in the Konkan in search of employment, some of them being clerks in Government's offices and others pleaders. They formerly held high posts under Government. In look, speech, food, drink, and dress, they do not differ from their brethren in Kolaba, Thana and Pune. They rank next to Brahmans and above Kunbis. Their family-gods are Ganapati, Khandoba, Tuljabhavani and other Brahmanic gods, and they keep the regular Brahmanic feasts and fasts. Their priest is a Deshasth Brahman who conducts all their ceremonies. They worship their family-gods with sandal paste and flowers daily and offer them food. Early marriage and polygamy are allowed, widow marriage is forbidden, and polyandry is unknown. Their social and religious customs do not differ from those of their caste people in Kolaba and Thana.

Patane Prabhus: Patane Prabhus are found in the town of Ahmadnagar only. They have come to the district during the last two centuries. They resemble their kinsmen in Thana and Bombay in all points.

Traders : Traders, according to 1881 Census, include eight classes with a strength of 21,108 or three per cent of the then Hindu population. The details are as follows:—

AHMADNAGAR TRADERS, 1881

Gujarat Jains: Gujarat Jains, also called Shravaks, are found in small numbers in Akola, Jamkhed, Kopargaon, Sangamner, Shevgaon and Shrigonda. Rishabhdhvaj and Pundarik are said to be the founders of their class and Vardhamansvami and Gautama, the founders of their faith. According to their own account they formerly dwelt in Oudh and accepted Jainism along with Bharat, a Solar Kshatriya, the great disciple of Vardhamansvami. They are called Gujars because after leaving Oudh they settled in Gujarat. When and why they came to Ahmadnagar they do not know. The names in common use among men and women are the same as those used by Vaishnav Gujars and the men add shetji or master and bhayiji or brother to their names. Their surnames are Bhandari, Ganchi, Mulavera, Nanavati, Patu, Parekh, Saraph, Shaha and Vakhariya. Persons bearing the same surnames may not inter-marry. Their home-tongue is Gujarati, and their family-god is Parasnath. They marry among themselves. In appearance and habits they do not differ from Gujar Vanis. They rank with Vaishnav Gujars though neither class eats from the other. They are religious, and they belong to the Digambar or sky-clad that is naked-god worshipping sect of Jains. Their priest is a Gujarat Brahman whom they ask to officiate at their marriage ceremonies. They hold Brahmans in great reverence, and their religious teacher is a Brahman of their own sect to whom they pay yearly tribute. He preaches Jain doctrines among his disciples, and is succeeded by the one among his pupils whom the Jain community considers the most worthy. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at meetings of the caste without any reference to their religious teacher. Breaches of social discipline are punished with loss of caste.

Gujarat Vanis: Gujarat Vanis are found in Akola, Jamkhed, Nevasa, Rahuri, Sangamner and Shevgaon. They include the two divisions of Vadnagari and Visnagari Vanis, and claim descent from the Vaishyas, the third of the four traditional Hindu tribes. They have no record of tradition of their coming to Ahmadnagar, except that they are supposed to have been settled about ten generations or three hundred years. The names in common use among men are Damodardas, Dwarkadas, Haridas, Krishnadas, Madhavdas, Prabhudas, Vallabhdas, Vishnudas. Vithaldas and Uttamdas; and among women Bhagirthibai, Jamnabai, Krishnabai, Kaveribai, Motibai, Rakhamabai, Sundarabai and Vithabai. They have no surnames. Their family-god is Vyankatesh or Balaji of Tirupati. Some are Vadnagars and others Visnagars from the towns of those names in north Gujarat. All in the district are said to belong to the Vishe division of these two classes. The two classes eat together but do not inter-marry. As a rule they are wheat-coloured, regular and delicate-featured and weak, the women being fairer than the men. Their home-tongue is Gujarati, but out-of-doors they speak Marathi. They rank below Brahmans and above Marathas, and eat from the hands of their own Brahmans, and occasionally from Deccan and Shenvi Brahmans and Panchals. They are religious, worshipping all Brahmanic gods and keeping all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their family-gods are Balaji or Vyankoba of Tirupati in North Arkot and Vithoba of Pandharpur, and they make pilgrimages to the leading Hindu sacred places. Their priest is a Gujarati Brahman, and in his absence a Deshasth Brahman is asked to officiate at their marriage and death ceremonies. They belong to the Vallabhacharya sect. Every male and female should receive religious instruction from the teacher and repeat the verse or mantra which the teacher whispers into the ear of the initiated. They bow before him and offer him flowers and sandal paste. They believe in sooth-saying and astrology, but profess not to believe in witch-craft, omens or evil spirits. Of the sixteen Brahman ceremonies or sanskars they perform the naming, hair-clipping, marriage, puberty and death ceremonies. The details on each of these occasions differ little from those in use among local Brahmans. When a boy begins to learn to write, he is taken to school on a lucky day with music and a band of friends. In the name of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning, he lays before the slate, flowers, sandal paste, vermilion and turmeric powder, sweetmeats, with betel leaves and nuts and a coconut, and bows to the slate. Packets of sweetmeats are handed among the school-boys. The teacher makes the boy write Om namas siddham, corrupted into O na ma si dham, that is, Bow to the perfect, and is presented with a roll of betel leaves, nuts and money, and the learning ceremony or Sarasvati pujan is over. Unlike local Brahmans, girls worship the goddess of fortune or mangalagauri before, and never after, they are married. Early marriage is allowed and practised; widow marriage and polygamy are forbidden on pain of loss of caste; polyandry is unknown. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at its meetings. Breaches of caste discipline are punished with fine and the decisions of the council are obeyed on pain of loss of caste.

Komtis: Komtis are found all over the district except in Jamkhed, Karjat, Rahuri, Shevgaon and Shrigonda. They seem to have come into the district from Telangana, though when and why they came is not known. The names in common use among men are Govinda, Rama, Vishnu and Vithoba; and among women Chima, Ganga, Lakshmi, Rama and Yamuna. Their surnames are Bhingarkar, Chhet, Chitte, Gandhekar, Konakarn, Nimbalkar, Niradkar, Pankar, Sudal, Tamtam and Vadkar. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is Telugu, and the family-god is Balaji or Vyankatraman of Tirupati in North Arkot. They are divided into Janav and Vani Komtis, the Janavs weaving and selling sacred thread which the Vani Komtis neither weave nor sell. These two classes eat together but do not inter-marry. There is a third class of Kadu Komtis who eat but do not marry with the other Komtis. They are dark, strong, and flabby, with a round face and small lively eyes. They rank below Brahmans and above Kunbis. Everyday they lay flowers, sandal paste and food before the image of Vyankatraman of Tirupati, of Vithoba of Pandharpur, of Devi of Tuljapur, of Ganpati, of Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, and of Maruti, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Telangi Brahman who lives in Pune, and visits their villages once a year, but does not take food at their hands. He officiates at their marriages and receives a yearly tribute in money from each of his followers. In his absence, local Brahmans are asked to take his place at their ceremonies and are much respected. They make pilgrimages to Jejuri in Pune, Pandharpur in Sholapur and Tirupati in North Arkot. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meeting of caste-men. Smaller breaches of social rules are punished with fine and graver offences are referred to their religious teacher Krishnacharya whose decision is final and is obeyed on pain of loss of caste.

Lad Vanis: Lad Vanis are found only in Nagar and Shevgaon. When or why they came into the district is not known, but their name seems to show that they came to Ahmadnagar from south Gujarat whose old name (A. D. 150) was Lad or Lat Desh. The names in common use among men and women do not differ from those used by local Brahmans. Their surnames are Balate, Chavan, Chikhale, Chaudhari, Gosavi, Joshi, Jhare, Karade, Khele, Modi, Paithankar and Shete. Their family-gods are Devi of Tuljapur, Mahadev of Shingnapur in Satara, and Vithoba of Pandharpur in Sholapur, and their family stocks are Agasti, Bharadvaj, Garga, Gautam, Jamadagni, Kaushik, Kashyap, Naidhruv and Vishvamitra. Sameness of family-stock but not sameness of surname is a bar to marriage. In appearance and speech they do not differ from local Brahmans or Sonars. They rank above Kunbis and below Brahmans. They are religious people, worshipping their family and other Brahmanic gods, and visiting holy places. Their priest is a Deshasth Brahman whom they ask to officiate at their leading ceremonies. Their customs are partly like those of Kunbis and partly like those of Brahmans, except that the texts are in ordinary and not in Vedic Sanskrit. Social disputes are settled at meetings, and breaches of social discipline are punished with fines which are generally spent on caste-feasts.

Kunams: Kunams or Kunbi Vanis, or Maratha traders, are found all over the district in small numbers. They are old settlers who have neither record nor memory of a former home. The names in common use among men are Bapu, Balvant, Dhondu, Govind and Rama; and among women, Bhagirathi, Chimani, Ganga, Manu, Sakhi, Saiu and Thaki. They add the word shet or merchant to the names of men and bai to the names of women. Their surnames are Avari, Ahir, Bodake, Borule, Dandnaik, Dhavare, Godase, Golade, Gujar, Hagvane, Holkar, Jagdale, Kadekar, Kalaskar, Kale, Kasid, Mitkari, Motale, Nandure, Nikam, Pabhore, Pandule, Pansambal, Sajgure, Sabele, Sadavarte, Shinde, Todekari, Vaskar and Yevari. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and of Rasin in Ahmadnagar, Daval Malik in the town of Ahmadnagar, Khandoba of Jejuri near Pune, and Vyankatesh of Tirupati in North Arkot. They have two divisions, one which wears and one which does not wear the ling, and who differ in no points except that the ling-wearers rub their brows with cow-dung ashes. They eat together and inter-marry. They do not differ from local Maratha Kunbis in appearance or dress. They are a religious people, worshipping all Brahmanic gods and keeping all Hindu fasts and feasts. They almost have equal reverence to Shiv and Vishnu and go on pilgrimage to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri, Tuljapur and Tirupati. The priest of those who wear the ling is a Jangam, but they also call a Brahman to their chief ceremonies. They are Sampradais or followers of Tukaram who lived in the seventeenth century, wear rosaries of basil beads, and repeat his couplets or abhangs in honour of Vithoba of Pandharpur. Their religious teacher is a devotee of Vithoba and a follower of Tukaram, whom they bow and offer un-cooked food, flower and sandal paste. They worship local gods, and believe in witch-craft, sooth-saying, and spirits, whom they scare by repeating prayers and with the help of Devrushis or Hindu exorcists. The followers of Tukaram burn their dead and mourn ten days; ling-wearers bury with Lingayat rites but hold after-death ceremonies in Brahman fashion. They have a caste council or panch, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men under the control of the council. A head-man called shetya, attends marriages, and the fathers of the bride and bridegroom present him with betel and mark his brow with sandal paste. His office is hereditary, and traders consult him on trade questions. He fixes the market rates and all members of the community are forbidden to under-sell on pain of fine or loss of caste.

Meshri Marwaris: Meshri Marwaris, or Brahmanic Vanis from Marwar, are found in small numbers all over the district. Meshri is a short form of Maheshvari, that is, worshippers of Maheshvar or the Great God. They are staunch worshippers of Shiv, and say that Shiv restored them to life after they had been turned into stone by a stunt whose hermitage, hunger forced them to plunder. They are said to have come from Marwar and settled in Ahmadnagar about two hundred years ago. The names in common use among men are Ambadas. Bijaram, Gopaldas, Lachhiram, Mayaniram, Mangaldas, Otaram, Ramsuk and Savairam; and among women, Gangabai, Jamnabai, Mathurabai, Pritabai and Yamunabai. The men add Shetji or Shahaji to their names, and their surnames are Aju, Babari, Baladave, Bajaj, Batad, Bang, Bhadade, Bhandari, Bhutade, Buvi, Byahani, Dage, Darag, Dramani, Gelada, Gilade, Hede, Judani, Jakhote, Jhanvar, Jodar, Jval, Kalya, Kakani, Kavare, Khadalaya, Kathiye, Lada, Loya, Lakhote, Lohati, Madhane, Malavi, Malu, Miniyar, Mintri, Modani. Mudane, Mundade, Sadade, Shikachi, Soni, Totale and Tosanivar. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Their home is Marwar, and their family-god is Balaji of Tirupati in North Arkot. In appearance, dwelling, food, drink, dress, character, calling and position they do not differ from Osval Marwaris. They are religious, worshipping their family-god Balaji or Vyankoba of Tirupati among other Brahmanic gods, and keeping all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Deccan Brahman who is asked to officiate at their death and marriage ceremonies. Though they belong to the Shaiv sect, they worship Vishnu and visit all sacred places. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes according to the opinion of their caste-men under the presidency of the council or panch.

Osval Marwaris: Osval Marwaris are found scattered in small numbers all over the district. They are said to have come to Ahmadnagar for purposes of trade within the last 200 years, and many have joined since the beginning of British rule. The men add chand or moon, das or slave, lal or favourite, and mal or warrior to their names, as Punamchand, Bhagvandas, Maniklal and Naharmal; Babaji and Kakaji are terms of respect used to elders and caste leaders. The names in common use among women are Chandkuvar, Jamni, Kesar, Kasturi, Moti, Rajkuvar, Rambha, Sankri and Suryakuvar. Bai or lady is generally added to woman's name. Their surnames are Bahira, Bhalkat, Bhandari, Chandgire, Chopade, Gadhe, Gadhate, Gandhi, Gugale, Gulecha, Kothar, Loda, Lukadrap, Mini, Mutachopada, Parakh, Potharne, Punavate, Sand, Sangide, Shinge, Sigavi, Sukhadi, Surna, Surana, Surapani and Vagmar. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. As a rule, like Gujaratis, relationship on the mother's side is held to bar marriage as much as relationship on the father's side. Their home-tongue is Marwari and their family-gods are Ajitnath and Parasnath of Banaras, and Rikhabnath of Dhuleva in Udhepur Osvals have two divisions, Bade Sajans or Big Good men who are of the Dases or Tens, and the Chhote Sajans or Little Good men, who are of the Vise or Score division of the caste. [The origin of the common Gujarat and Marwar caste division into Tens and Scores seems to mean that the Vise is the full and the Dase the half caste.] Of the cause of the split in the caste the story is told that, about 800 years ago, a caste-feast was given at a village in Marwar when all members were asked except an old widow and her son whose names were forgotten by mistake. The old lady took offence and she and her son separated from the rest of the caste and founded the Bade or senior branch of the community. The two classes eat together but do not inter-marry. As a rule Marwaris are darker and stouter than local Brahmans and Vanis. The face is long, the eyes rather small, the teeth good, and the whiskers and moustache long and bushy. The home-tongue is Marwari, but they write their account books in Gujarati, and speak Marathi or Hindustani with others. They are religious, worshipping their family-god Parasnath and visiting his shrine at Shatranja hill in Palitana, and the shrine of Balaji or Vyankatraman at Tirupati. Their priest is a Marwar Brahman whom they call padhanevala or teacher, and in his absence, they ask local Brahmans to officiate at their ceremonies. They respect Brahmans of all classes and often make them money-gifts or dakshina. They belong to the Digambar or sky-clad, that is, the naked-god worshipping Jains. Under the Peshwas, they were occasionally treated with harshness and in some cases their temples were turned into places of Brahmanic worship. Their leading doctrine is that the taking of life is a sin. They worship images of the Jain gods without the help of a Jain priest.

Sansari Jangams: Sansari Jangams, or secular Lingayat priests, are found all over the district. They are said to have come from Karnataka. but when or why is not known. Like the Lingayats of Dharwar and Bijapur, they revere the founder of the Lingayat sect who lived at Kalyan, a hundred miles west of Hyderabad in the Deccan during the reign of the Kalachurya king Bijjal (1156). The story of Basav's life which is known to most Sansari Jangams is taken from the Basav Puran. They say that Basvacharya or Basveshvar, that is Basav, was born of Brahman parents, who after long remaining childless were rewarded by Shiv, whom they constantly worshipped, with the promise of a son. The mother was with child for three years. Before the child was born, Shiv appeared to the mother in a dream and told her to call the child Basav, the Kanarese name for Nandi, Shiv's bull. Hence it was believed that in Basav the god Nandi had become flesh. Miracles were not wanting to conform this belief. When he was about eight years old, Basav's father wished to gird the boy with the sacred thread. Basav refused as if he wore the thread he must learn the sun-hymn or gayatri. For this act of disobedience Basav was driven from his father's house. He went to Kalyan accompanied by his sister and married a daughter of the king's minister who was his maternal uncle. He improved his prospects at court by giving his sister in marriage to king Bijjal. After the death of his father-in-law Basav became prime minister. He made use of his high position to spread his new doctrines and gathered round him large numbers of all castes. The king grew jealous of Basav's power, and put out the eyes of three of Basav's staunchest followers. Basav ordered another of his followers to avenge the wrong done to the three Lingayats, cursed Kalyan and withdrew to Sangameshvar a hundred miles west of Bellari, where he was absorbed into the ling. According to the Jain books the king, distrusting Basav's power and influence, sent troops against him but was defeated and afterwards poisoned by Basav. On hearing of his father's death Rai Murari, the king's son, came against Basav who fled to Ulvi in North Kanara, was pursued, and in despair threw himself into a well. According to the books, Basav's chief doctrines were tenderness for animal life, doing away caste distinctions and ceremonial impurities, and admitting women to religious and social equality with men. If they were ever carried into practical life these doctrines have been greatly modified not only in Ahmadnagar but in Bijapur, Dharwar and other Kanarese districts where Lingayats are probably as numerous and as powerful as they ever were. Lingayats are divided into laymen and priests or Jangams; and the priests are divided into secular and religious priests who eat together and intermarry. The names in common use among men are Bhau, Bhujang, Sambhu, Shivrudra and Vasurupaksh; and among women, Bhagirathi, Bhima, Girja, Mathura and Saku. Men add appa and women add bai to their names. Their surnames are Agvale, Bagle, Bhinge, Kavde, Kamane, Pakhale, Pathre and Vibhute. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. They are dark, strong and regular-featured and speak Marathi both at home and abroad. Their family-gods are Malikarjun of Shri Shailya, Nagoba of Vadole in Ahmadnagar, Basveshvar of Kalyan and Virbhadra. They rank below local Brahmans and above husbandmen. They worship Shiv's emblem or ling and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. They hold Mahadev in great respect and make pilgrimages to Banaras, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. Their priests are religious Jangams who officiate at their births, marriages and deaths. Their religious teacher is Gurusvami the high priest of the religious house of Manur in the ex-Nizam's country. He visits their villages at stated times and levies from them a yearly money-tribute. Of late years, there have been great changes in their practices and beliefs and their religious and social customs are coming closely to resemble Brahmanic customs. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at caste meetings. Breaches of social rules are punished by fines which generally take the form of a caste-feast.

Husbandmen: Husbandmen, according to 1881 Census, included five classes with a strength of 340,479 or 43.18 per cent of the then Hindu population. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR HUSBANDMEN, 1881

Bangars: Bangars are found in small numbers scattered over the district. They seem to have come from Karnataka, but cannot tell why or when they came. They have no sub-divisions. The names in common use among men are Ellappa, Gyanappa, Lingappa, Malappa and Rayappa; and among women Ganga, Lakshumi, Manki, Saguna and Sita. Their surnames are Bhinkar, Buras, Jiresale, Phutane and Tambe. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. In appearance and speech they are like local Marathas. They are land-owners and cultivators and field-labourers. They worship all local gods and hold Mahadev in special reverence. Their priest is a Jangam whom they ask to officiate at their births, marriages and deaths. They make pilgrimages to Shri Shailya Parvati in North Arkot, and to Malikarjun of Shingnapur in Satara and of Phaltan. They have a caste council and their head-man or shetya settles their caste disputes in consultation with the caste council or panch.

Kunbis: Kunbis are found all over the district, but in the western division of Akola are less numerous than Kolis. They do not differ much from Marathas, who are of two classes: God literally sweet, or legitimate Marathas, and Kadu, literally sour. Among God Marathas are some families of high social position who let their sons but do not let their daughters marry into ordinary Maratha families. After four or five generations Kadu Marathas are allowed to become sweet or legitimate. The Maratha names for men and women do not differ from those used by local Brahmans. The men add rao saheb and the women add bai to their names. All Marathas have surnames among which perhaps the most common are Bhonsle, Chora, Dabhade, Dhamdere, Gaikvad, Ghadge, Hande, Jadhav, Jagdale, Kale, Kshirsagar, Mhaske, Modhe, Padval, Povar, Shelke, Shinde, Samvanshe and Thorat. As a class Marathas are dark, middle-sized, strong, hardy, enduring and muscular. Except in the higher families whose women are veiled or gosha and are generally weak, the women are strong and hardy like their husbands. They speak Marathi with a broad accent. They rank next to Brahmans and traders and above craftsmen. They are proverbially a religious class worshipping all Brahmanic and local gods, and showing special reverence for their family-gods — Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, Mahadev, Maruti, Ram, Vishnu and Vithoba. Their priests are local Brahmans whom they highly esteem and ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They cannot tell whether they are Smarts or Bhagvats. Their religious and social customs and their fasts and festivals are the same as those of Pune Kunbis. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at meetings of the caste-men under some wise man or elder. Breaches of social discipline are condoned by fines and caste-feasts, and the decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Malis: Malis, or gardeners, are found all over the district. They seem to have originally been Maratha-Kunbis who took to gardening and by degree formed a separate community. They have four divisions Phul Malis or flower-growers, Jire Malis or cumin-seed growers, Haldi Malis or turmeric-growers, and Kacha Malis or cotton-braid weavers. Phul Malis are considered the highest of the four and in Ahmadnagar are allowed to eat with Marathas. Kacha and Phul Malis dine together, and Jires and Haldis dine together, but Kachas and Phuls will not eat with Jires and Haldis. The names in common use among men and women are the same as those of Maratha-Kunbis. Their surnames are Ambekar, Analang, Anarse, Banakar, Bhajane, Bhujbal, Bhanbarekar, Borade, Chakne, Chipade, Chaure, Chaudhari, Dalave, Datrange, Gadalkar, Gaikavad, Gholap, Godhale, Guldagade, Hajare, Hirve. Jagtap, Jarad, Kade, Kajale, Kanade, Kante, Kate, Khandare, Kolhe, Koke, Labade, Lalbage, Ledkar, Lokhande, Manjarpudane, Mehetre, Mule, Parvat, Parakhe, Phulsundar, Rasal, Raskar, Shinde, Shitaphale. Tanksali and Thorat. Persons bearing the same surname cannot intermarry, but sameness of devak or wedding guardian is no bar to marriage. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari and Agadgaon in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and of Saptashring in Nasik, and Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune. In looks, food, drink and dress they do not differ from local Maratha-Kunbis. Their home-tongue is a corrupt Marathi. They rank with Maratha-Kunbis, above crafts-men. They worship all Brahmanic and local gods and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They have a great reverence for their family-gods and cannot tell whether they are Smarts or Bhagvats. Their priests are local Brahmans who conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They make yearly offerings of a goat and a fowl to Mhasoba and Khandoba, and go on pilgrimage to Banaras, Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men under their head-man. At caste-feasts the head-man is the first to have his brow rubbed with sandal paste and the first to be presented with betel. Breaches of social discipline are punished with fines which take the form of caste-feasts.

Pahadis: Pahadis, or hill-men, are found in Kopargaon and Sangamner. Their origin is unknown, and they have no tradition regarding their arrival in the district. They claim descent from Maratha-Kunbi parents and their names and surnames and their appearance are the same as those of Maratha-Kunbis. Their family-gods are Devi of Saptashring in Nasik and Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune. Their home-tongue is Marathi. They rank with Marathas but Marathas do not marry with them. They worship all Kunbi gods and hold their own family-gods in special reverence and visit their shrines whenever they can afford it. Their priest is a Deccan Brahman whom they highly respect and ask to officiate at marriage and death ceremonies. They believe in witch-craft, sooth-saying and evil spirits, and like the local Maratha-Kunbis perform only three ceremonies at birth, marriage and death. The chief difference in detail is that, instead of the Kunbi's axe, the Pahadis worship a balance and scales called taraju as the wedding guardian or devak. Polygamy, child marriage and widow marriage are allowed and practised, and polyandry is unknown. They settle social disputes at meetings of the caste council and punish breaches of social discipline by fines which take the form of caste-feasts.

Rajputs: Rajputs are found all over the district. They claim descent from the ancient Kshatriya or warrior race and are said to have come into the district from upper India within the last two hundred years. The oldest settlers are supposed to have come as soldiers in the Moghal armies which over-ran the district early in the seventeenth century. Their chief divisions are Ahirsod, Bais, Chohan, Gardya and Rajbansi, none of which either eat together or inter-marry. Their home-tongue is Hindustani but out-of-doors they speak Marathi. Their family-deity is Bhavani.

Craftsmen: Craftsmen, according to 1881 Census, included twenty-nine classes with a strength of 63,836 or nine per cent of the then Hindu population. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR CRAFTSMEN, 1881

Bangdis: Bangdis, or blanket-weavers, are found in Karjat and Shrigonda. They have no memory or tradition of any earlier home. Their names and surnames are the same as those of the local shepherds or Dhangars. Their home-tongue is a corrupt Marathi, and they are dark, strong and robust and like Dhangars in face. They worship Khandoba, Mariai, Tulja-Bhavani and Pirs or Musalman saints. They do not keep images of their gods. When they visit their god's temples, they throw handfuls of water at the feet of the god, bow and withdraw. Their priests are local Brahmans whom they ask to conduct their marriage ceremonies. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri and Tuljapur. They have a caste council, and settle social disputes at meetings of the caste-men. Breaches of discipline are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Beldars: Beldars, or quarry-men, probably from bel a pick-axe, are found all over the district. They are divided into Maratha Beldars and Pardeshi-Beldars, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. Maratha-Beldars do not differ from Maratha-Kunbis in looks, food, dress or customs. The names in common use among Pardeshi-Beldars are for men Balsing, Bapusing, Dagadu, Devmani, Harising, Mogliaji, Panchamsing, Ramsing and Tulshiram; and for women, Bhimi, Chimni, Ganga, Gomi, Gulaki, Jamni, Lakshmi, Mohani and Sita. Their surnames are Bavaru, Chukhale, Gurade, Hirade, Kathivalve, Kudavale, Navale and Navate; persons bearing the same surnames eat together but do not inter-marry. They are tall, dark, robust, strong, hardworking and quarrelsome. They speak incorrect Hindustani at home and Marathi abroad. They rank below Kunbis. They worship the ordinary Brahmanic gods, have house images of Devi of Tuljapur, of Khandoba of Jejuri and of Mariai, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priests are local Brahmans whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They worship the local gods Mahadev, Maruti and Vithoba of Pandharpur, and make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri and Tuljapur. Pardeshi-Beldars have a caste council and settle social disputes at caste meetings.

Bhadbhunjas: Bhadbhunjas, or grain-parchers, are found in the town of Ahmadnagar only. They belong to upper India, and have come into the district in search of work during the last three centuries. The names in common use among men and women are the same as among Rajputs from whom they do not differ in looks, dress, food or drink. They speak a correct Hindustani both at home and abroad. They are Smarts and worship the images of Bahiroba, Devi and Khandoba. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Pandharpur and Tuljapur, worship all local gods and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Pardeshi or Kanauj Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. Social disputes are settled by the caste.

Gavandis and Patharvats: Gavandis and Patharvats, or masons and stone-dressers, are found in all sub-divisions except Nevasa. They have no tradition of their origin or of their settling in Ahmadnagar. They seem to be Maratha-Kunbis whose special occupation has formed them into a separate community. The names in common use among men are Dhondi, Gyanu, Gopala, Lakshman, Ranu and Sakharam; and among women, Bhagirthi, Bhagu, Chandrabhaga, Chimni, Kashi, Lakshmi, Revu, Tai and Yamni. Their surnames are Bhonpale, Ghante, Kanake, Kese, Ketkar, Pedvan, Rajan, Rajpure, Sindivan and Sitole. Persons with the same surname cannot intermarry. Their family-gods are Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri and Vyankatesh of Tirupati. They have two divisions: Gavandis and Patharvats who eat together but do not inter-marry. As a class they are dark, strong and well-made like Kunbis. Both at home and out-of-doors they speak Marathi with a broad accent. They rank with local Kunbis. They are a religious people, worshipping their family-gods, Mahadev, Maruti and Vithoba of Pandharpur and visiting Alandi, Paithan, Pandharpur, Tuljapur and other sacred places. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. They keep all Hindu holidays and fasts like the Kunbis, and their religious teacher is either a bairagi or an ascetic or a man of their own or of some high caste who regularly visits the shrine of Vithoba and is called Pandharicha Varkari, the periodical pilgrim of Pandharpur. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste meetings. Breaches of rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Ghisadis: Ghisadis, or wandering blacksmiths, are found in all sub-divisions except Akola, Kopargaon, Rahuri, Sangamner and Shrigonda. Their traditional ancestor and name-giver is said to have been called Ghisadi because he knew the ghissa pench, a special grip in wrestling and beat a great gymnast. They have no memory of any earlier home, but the Gujarati of their home-tongue shows that they were formerly settled in Gujarat. They move from place to place in search of work. The names in common use among men are Amrita, Dagadu, Ganu, Mahalu, Pandu, Rama, Tukaram and Vithu; and among women Rakhma, Rangu, Shanti, Sita, Tahni and Thaku. Their commonest surnames are Chavan, Khetri, Padavalkar, Pavar, Salunke, Selar, Shinde and Suryavanshi. Their home-tongue is a dialect of Gujarati and out-of-doors they speak a corrupt Marathi. Their family-god is Kalkai. They are divided into Ghisadis proper and Kadu Ghisadis, who eat together but do not inter-marry. They are regular-featured and well-made like Kunbis but darker and taller. They rank with Kunbis. They are a religious people, worshipping Devi of Tuljapur, Ganpati, Khandoba of Jejuri, Maruti and other Brahmanic gods, and asking Brahman priests to conduct their marriages. They revere Brahmans as a class and keep all Hindu holidays and fasts like local Kunbis. They make pilgrimages to Pandharpur and to Tuljapur and believe in witchcraft, sooth-saying and evil spirits. Of the sixteen Hindu ceremonies or sanskars they perform only four, viz., birth, marriage, puberty and death. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men. Breaches of rules are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts, and a free pardon is granted to those who submit.

Jain Shimpis: Jain Shimpis, or tailors are found in small numbers all over the district They have no memory of any former settlement. They claim to belong to the Shatval division of Jains, and seem to have come into the district from Marwar in search of work, though when they came is not known. Their fairer skins and more refined manners distinguish them from the local Kunbis and craftsmen; they have many Kunbi customs and ways, but signs remain which support their claim to have a strain of Kshatriya blood. Their names and surnames do not differ from those of the local Kunbis, and as among Kunbis, persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. All belong to the Rukhum family-stock, a name which does not appear among the family-stocks of any other caste in the district. They speak Marathi both at home and out-of-doors. They have no divisions, and in looks, food, drink and dress, do not differ from local Brahmans. They rank below Brahmans and above Kunbis. They are religious and their family-god is Parasnath whom they worship daily with flowers and sandal paste in their houses and at the time of thread-girding, but at no other ceremoney. They also worship the Brahmanic gods Mahadev, Vishnu and Vithoba. They belong to the Digambar or sky-clad Jains, that is, worshippers of naked gods who are also called Digambars, or to the Shatval division of Jains. They are not strict Jains and practise many Brahmanic customs, worship all the local Brahmanic gods, and keep the regular Brahman rites. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts all their ceremonies except thread-girding, which they perform in the presence of their family-god Parasnath without the aid of a priest. They make pilgrimages to Girnar in south Kathiawad, to Kantagiri in Sirpur, to Jejuri, to Tuljapur and to Pandharpur. They keep all the Jain festivals. Their religious teacher is Vishalkirt, the head of the Jain religious house at Latur near Barshi in Sholapur. He never marries, and gives religious instruction to all his Shimpi followers above five years who make him yearly cash payments. He is succeeded by his favourite disciple. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men. Breaches of discipline are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts and the decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Jingars: Jingars, or saddle-makers, are found scattered in small numbers in all sub-divisions of the district. They say they have passed many generations in the district, and in looks, food, drink, dress and character they do not differ from the Jingars of Pune. Their religious and social customs are the same as those of Pune Jingars.

Kaikadis: Kaikadis are found in small numbers all over the district. Their origin is unknown and they have no memory of former settlements. The names in common use among men are Bahiru, Bapu, Bhuja, Daji, Ganu, Govind, Jijyaba, Malhari, Manya, Naiku, Sakharam, Satvya and Sidya; and among women Bhagu, Chimnai, Dhanu, Dhondu, Gajai, Gangu, Kondai, Manjula, Saku, Satvai and Vithai. Their surnames are Dane, Ditarai, Dyagiri, Hyanasare, Idgale, Jalamsa, Kade, Kaysare, Kumarai, Lode, Madansar, Mudhune, Manki, Neri, Patti, Shamdire, Tirkale, Utalsaspatal and Valsade. Their clan or kul names are Jadhav, Madhavant and Povar. Sameness of clan name but not sameness of surnames bars marriage. Their home-tongue is Telugu and out-of-doors they speak a corrupt Marathi. They are of five divisions, Borivale, Kunchevale, Kamathi or Lalbajarvale, Makadvale and Vaibase. The last or Vaibase are a settled class and look down on the others. Kunchevales or brush-makers and Makadvales or monkey-men wander from place to place, the Kunchevales making brushes for Salis and other weavers and the Makadvales owning and training monkeys. Kamathi Kaikadis, basket-makers and courtezans, are the largest class of Kaikadis in the district. Bonvales and Vaibases are seldom seen. As a class Kaikadis are dark, thin, middle-sized and strong. They rank below husbandmen. Besides all local and boundary gods they worship Bahiroba, Bhavani, Mariai, Phirangai, Tukai and Yamai whose images they keep in their houses with the masks or taks of their married ancestors. They ask local Brahmans to conduct their marriage. They almost never go on pilgrimage. Of the sixteen Hindu sacraments they keep three, birth, marriage and death. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men. Breaches of social discipline are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste feasts.

Kasars: Kasars, or brass-makers, are found scattered all over the district. In looks, food, dress and character they resemble the Kasars of Pune, and their social and religious customs are the same as those of the Bogars of Kanara and the Kasars of Bijapur.

Kumbhars: Kumbhars or potters are found all over the district. They claim to be Marathas. The names in use for men and women and some of their surnames are the same as those of Maratha-Kunbis. These surnames are Buddhivan, Devtrase, Divate, Jadhav, Jagdale, Jorvekar, Lonkar, Shinde, Vagchaure and Vagmare. Sameness of surname is a bar to marriage. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They have no divisions. They hold aloof from food and marriage connection with Balde, Bhonde, Hatghade, Ladbhuje and Pardeshi Kumbhars. Their home-tongue is a corrupt Marathi spoken with a broad accent like that of the Marathas. They are dark, strong, middle-sized and well-made. They rank next to Maratha-Kunbis and above the impure classes. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a village Joshi whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri and Tuljapur. Their religious and social customs do not differ from those of Maratha-Kunbis. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men. They have no head-man. Breaches of social discipline are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Kattais: Kattais, or leather-workers, are found in Nevasa, Rahuri, Sangamner and Shevgaon. They claim descent from Rohidas Chambhar, the great worshipper of Vithoba of Pandharpur. They are old settlers and have no memory or tradition of an earlier home. Their customs are almost entirely local, but the use of sing at the end of men's names suggests that they are of upper Indian origin. The names in common use among men are Bhansing, Chhotesing, Chaudaman, Durga, Gangasing, Hiraman, Jhamba, Kasiram, Maniram, Mohan, Phatru, Ramchandra, Ramsing, Sivakisan, Subharam, Tukaram and Vittalsing; and among women, Anandibai, Budhia, Chhoti, Dhania, Gangabai, Himiya, Jamnabai, Laliya, Lohabai, Maniya and Parvatibai. The word karbhari or manager, chaudari or head-man, and sing or warrior are added to men's names, and bai and mai to women's. Their usual surname is Doravare. Their family-gods are Balaji of Tirupati, Devi of Tuljapur, Mahadev of Tryambakeshvar and Vithoba and Rakhamai of Pandharpur. They have no divisions and persons bearing the same surname can inter-marry. They are dark, strong and well-made like upper India Rajputs or Pardeshis, and can readily be known from Chambhars and other local castes. They speak Hindustani at home and Marathi abroad. They rank below Kunbis. They are a religious people, worshipping Vyankatraman of Tirupati in North Arkot with special reverence, and respect local deities and visit their shrines on their fair days. Their priest is a Pardeshi Brahman from upper India, who conducts their leading ceremonies. They belong to the Nath sect. Their religious teacher is a Bairagi or ascetic whom in return for religious teaching they present with clothes, un-cooked food, metal vessels and cash. The teacher is generally succeeded by his favourite disciple. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and social disputes are settled at meetings of a council or panch under their head-man or chaudhari. The office of chaudhari is hereditary. He is highly respected by the caste people who present him with a turban on marriages and show him great respect at caste-feasts. The council's decisions are obeyed on pain of loss of caste. The religious teacher is not consulted on points of social discipline.

Khatris: Khatris, or weavers, are found in Ahmadnagar and Sangamner. They say they were originally Kshatriyas, whom, to save from slaughter by Parshuram, Devi advised to take to weaving. They say that they formerly lived at Sahasrarjun in Mandugad, the old capital of Malwa. The names in common use among men are Alisa. Balasa, Bapusa, Damasa, Govindasa, Mannasa, Naryansa, Ramusa, and Vishnusa; and among women, Durga, Ganga, Rakhama and Radha. Men add Savanji or chief and women bai or lady to their names. Their surnames are Baji, Bakhave, Borgavkar, Chingi, Khade, Khambe, Khanapure, Kherulkar, Magaji, Pavar and Panchang. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. They include three divisions, Brahma Khatris, Kapur Khatris and Sahasrarjun Khatris, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. Most Ahmadnagar Khatris are Brahmakhatris and to them the following details apply:—As a class they are dark, strong and well-made, and their speech is a mixture of Marathi and Gujarati. They rank below Brahmans and above Maratha-Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. They hold Devi, their family-goddess, in special reverence keeping her image in their houses. They have a caste council and they settle social disputes at caste meetings under their head-man or chaudhari. The office of head-man is hereditary.

Koshtis: Koshtis, or weavers, are found all over the district. They belong to two main divisions Maratha and Kanada Koshtis. The Maratha-Koshtis are divided into Devang, Halabe, Hatgar and Junare, and the Kanada-Koshtis into Kurnaval and Patanval. Of the Maratha-Koshtis Hatgars and Devangs came from Wai in Satara, Junares from Junnar in Pune and Halabes from Nagpur. Both the Kurnavals and the Patanvals are said to have come from Kanara. They rub their brows with cowdung-ashes, wear the ling, and hold aloof from the four Maratha divisions who eat together and inter-marry. In the Maratha group the names in common use among men and women are the same as the local Kunbi or Sali names. Men add tatya or uncle, shetji or merchant, and karbhari or manager to their names and women mavashi or aunt, nani or grand-mother, and tai or sister to theirs. Their commonest surnames are Aikade, Badade, Bahirat, Bavad, Bhakre, Bhagvat, Bhalesing, Bhandare, Bibve, Bide, Bomdarde, Botre, Chakre, Chipade, Chorde, Dahure, Dandavate, Dhage, Dhavalshankh, Dhimate, Dhole, Dide, Dinge, Divate, Doiphode, Dugam, Galande, Ghodake, Ghate, Godase, Gulavane, Gursale, Hamade, Harke, Hule, Javare, Jhade, Kalse, Kaltavane, Kambale, Khadge, Khane, Kharve, Kudal, Kurkute, Kusurkar, Lad, Lakare, Mahure, Makvate, Malge, Malvande, Mantarkar, Manyal, Mukhavate, Nemane, Padole, Pakhale, Pandkar, Pandare, Parkhe, Phalke, Rahatade, Rangare, Rasinkar, Shevale, Silvant, Sopate, Tambe, Tarake, Taralkar, Tavare, Taravade, Tatparuk, Tipare, Ukarade, Upare, Varade, Vahal and Vedorde. Persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is Marathi and they are dark, strong and middle-sized with well-cut features like Kunbis or Salis. The Kanada-Koshtis speak Kanada at home and Marathi abroad. They rank with Maratha-Kunbis and above Salis. As a class Koshtis are religious, worshipping all Hindu gods and keeping all feasts and fasts. The Maratha-Koshtis daily worship their family-goddess Devi of Kolhapur or of Badami in Bijapur, laying flowers and sandal paste before her. They hold Brahmans in great reverence and ask them to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. The Kanada-Koshtis worship Mahadev of Shingnapur in Satara and ask Jangam priests to conduct their birth, marriage and death ceremonies. They were formerly Lingayats but are not now strict observers of their faith. Their religious teacher is the high priest of the religious house of Akkalkot, who visits their villages and levies yearly tribute from his followers. They raise a sum of money by contribution, and hold a feast in his honour, wash his feet, and piously sip the water that their sins may be cleansed. The religious teacher of the Devangs and Hatgars is the high priest of the religious house of Mhaisgaum near Pandharpur in Sholapur; the high priest of the Halabes who is called Kolba Bava lives at Dhipevad near Nagpur; and the Junares have no high priest. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Kolhapur and Pandharpur. They have a caste council and a head-man called Mehtar, and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men under their head-man whose office is hereditary. Petty breaches of discipline are enquired into and punished by the priest, and graver offences by the head-man and council. The punishment is fine which is spent in buying metal vessels for the use of the community.

Lakheris: Lakheris, or lac bracelet-makers, are found in Parner and Shrigonda. Their home-tongue and many customs and other details support their belief that before coming to Ahmadnagar they were settled in Marwar. The names in common use among men are Amaraji, Dakaji, Lakshamanji, Narayanji, Parsaji and Punaji; and among women, Dhondki, Jukabai, Jhuma, Mungibai, Rakhamabai, Rajkuvar and Tulsabai. Their surnames are Bagade, Bhate, Chavan, Hatade, Nagare, Padiyar, Ratvad and Salunke. Men add ji or sir to their names. Persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-god is Balaji otherwise known as Vyankoba of Tirupati in North Arkot. There are no divisions among them. They are dark, strong and middle-sized with lively eyes and regular features. Their home-tongue is Marwari and out-of-doors they speak a rough Marathi. They rank above local Kunbis and below Brahmans. Their family-god is Balaji whose image they keep in their houses and worship with flowers, sandal paste and food. They have no priest of their own, but ask local Brahmans to conduct their ceremonies. They worship Devi of Tuljapur and local Muhammedan saints. Of the sixteen Hindu sacraments or sanskars they perform only marriage and death. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling. Social disputes are settled at caste-meetings. Smaller breaches of caste rules are punished by fines which either take the form of caste-feasts or are spent in charity.

Lingayat Buruds: Lingayat Buruds, or basket-makers, are found in all sub-divisions except Akola. They claim descent from Medarket, one of the followers of Basav (1100-1160) the founder or reviver of the Lingayat faith. They are said to have come from the Karnataka and must be old settlers, as except in a few religious and social customs, they have adopted the speech and ways of local Kunbis. The names, both of men and women, do not differ from local Kunbi names. Their surnames are Dukare, Gade, Gandhe, Ghorpade, Hatage, Hole, Jamkar, Kate, Khaire, Kharade, More, Pimpale, Pharave, Shinde, Sole, Sonavane and Vartale; persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Ambabai of Saptashring in Nasik and of Tuljapur. Their speech, both at home and abroad, is a rough Marathi. They form a distinct class from Maratha and Kamathi Buruds with whom they neither eat nor marry. In looks and speech they differ little from local Kunbis. They rank below Kunbis, but they take food from no one, not even from Brahmans who hold them pure and freely touch them. They are a religious people worshipping the chief Lingayat deity Mahadev with the Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri and all Brahmanic gods, and visiting Alandi, Dehu and Jejuri in Pune, Paithan, Saptashring in Nasik, Tuljapur and other sacred places. The priest who conducts their marriages and deaths is a Jangam or Lingayat but they also hold Brahmans in high respect. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and social disputes are settled at caste-meetings. Their religious teachers never meddle with social matters.

Lohars: Lohars, or black-smiths, are found in all sub-divisions of the district. They have no tradition of their coming into the district or of any earlier home. The names in common use among men are Amrita, Babaji, Bala, Bapu, Bhiva, Govinda, Gopala, Hari, Kashinath, Lakshman, Mahadu, Narayan, Raghunath, Rama and Tatya; and among women Anandi, Bhagu, Bhima, Chandrabhaga, Ganga, Kashi, Lakshmi, Parvati, Rama, Rakhama, Rahi, Radha, Salai and Savitri. The men formerly added deshmukh or district-head and now add karagir or workman to their names. Their surnames are Agar, Ambekar, Ankush, Bhorant, Champhakarande, Chavan, Chor, Gadekar, Javane, Jagtap, Jadhav, Kalasait, Kale, Kangale, Kavare, Lokhande, Landge, Pavar, Popalghat, Sonavane, Thorat and Tingare. Persons who have the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari, Agadgaon, Devagad and Simpalapur in Ahmadnagar; Devi of Tuljapur, of Rasin in Ahmadnagar, and of Saptashring in Nasik; Janai or Jokhai a Konkan deity; and Khandoba of Jejuri and of Pali in Satara They have no divisions. They do not differ in appearance from local Kunbis being dark, strong and well-made. Both in-doors and out-of-doors they speak Kunbi-Marathi. Their birth, marriage and death expenses closely agree with those of the local Kunbis. They are a religious people with Bahiroba, Devi, Janai and Khandoba as their family-gods, and also worshipping the village Maruti, Ganpati and other Hindu gods, and the house anvil, the bread-winner and guardian which they call Kalakadevi and worship on all holidays with flowers, sandal paste and food. Their priest is a Brahman whom they highly respect, and ask to conduct their ceremonies. They keep all Hindu holidays and fasts. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Smaller breaches of discipline are punished with fine in the form of a caste-feast and caste-decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Lonaris: Lonaris, or lime-burners, are found in all sub-divisions except in Akola and Rahuri. They say they are Marathas and have no memory or tradition of any earlier home. They do not differ from Marathas in looks, speech, dwelling, food or dress, and eat and marry with them. The names in common use among men and women are the same as the names of Maratha-Kunbis. Their surnames are Adalkar, Adhao, Ajge, Bondre, Dadre, Dhanjekar, Dhemare, Dhone, Dodmishe, Ganganmahale, Gherade, Gite, Godshe, Jarad, Jatge, Jhadge, Kalaskar, Kalel, Karande, Kavande, Karche, Kurhe, Kute, Lagad, Landge, Lavarkar, Limbarkar, Limgare, Molekar, More, Muthekar, Narale, Navthare, Palaskar, Pothare, Rakshe, Sable, Satpute, Shinde, Tambe, Tulaskar, Tupsundar, Unde, Vagh and Vaghmare. Persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. They are dark, tall, strong and well-made. They rank with local Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic and local gods and keep the regular Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a local Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. Of the sixteen Hindu sacraments they keep four—birth, marriage, puberty and death, the rites on all these occasions being the same as those among Kunbis. They have a caste council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Mochis: Mochis, or shoe-makers, are found only in Shrigonda. They are of southern and eastern origin and are said to have come into the district about 250 years ago. They include three divisions: Kanarese, Madrasi and Telangi, who eat together but do not inter-marry. Each division at home speak the language of the district they come from and all speak a corrupt Marathi abroad. The names in common use among men are Balu, Bhujya, Govinda, Husena, Lilappa, Lingu, Nagdu, Naglu, Nagu, Narsu, Papdu, Pochana, Pochati, Rajana, Saidu, Sidapa, Shivapa and Vyankati; and among women Ajammaka, Akamma, Chhalamamma, Durgamma, Gorada, Nagamma, Narsamma, Shivamma, Timaka, Vadamma, Yallamma. Their surnames are Belalu, Chandralu, Gadapolu, Gaurelu, Gyatarlu, Gola, Kondaulu, Itakalu, Mapatarlu, Manolu, Pomagu and Ramsvami. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. The family-goddess is Devi of Tuljapur. They are religious, worshipping their family-goddess, Devi of Tuljapur, Mahadev of Tryambakeshvar, Vithoba of Pandharpur and the village Maruti. Their priest is a Lingayat Jangam and in his absence, they ask the local Brahmans whom they highly respect to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They belong to the Shakta sect being worshippers of Devi of Tuljapur and their religious teacher is a Jangam or Lingayat priest named Jurka Chandaiga who lives in Telangana. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, and believe in witch-craft, sooth-saying and evil spirits. They perform only three of the sixteen Hindu sacraments, birth, marriage and death, and on those occasions their rites do not differ from Kamathi rites. They ate bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. They have an hereditary head-man called mehtar whose voice is obeyed in all social matters on pain of loss of caste. Small breaches of social rules are punished with fines; and serious offences are referred to their religious teacher in Telangana.

Namdev Shimpis: Namdev Shimpis, or Namdev tailors, are found scattered over the district in small numbers. They claim descent from Namdev Shimpi, the famous devotee of Vithoba of Pandharpur, who died about 1300. They are said to have come into the district from Pune and Bombay. The names in common use among men are Nama, Pandoba, Ramkrishna, Vithoba and Yashwant; and among women Bhagirathi, Gangi, Rahi and Rakhmai. Women add bai or lady, jiji or madam, major mother and tai or sister to their names, and men shet or merchant to theirs. Their surnames are Avasare, Bagade, Bakre, Barber, Bartake, Basale, Choke, Dare, Denthe, Ganchare, Gote, Gujar, Indre, Jadhav, Javalkar, Kalas, Kalasekar, Kale, Kamble, Karangkar, Kavitkar, Khedkar, Khokale, Kolhe, Kumthekar, Lachake, Litake, Mahadik, Malvade, Mete, Nevaskar, Nikhal, Padalkar, Parpate, Phutane, Pote, Sarode, Sarolkar, Sayad, Shindekar, Tikar, Upare, Uredkar, Vade, Vachrane and Vahute. Persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Devi of Tuljapur and Saptashring, Khandoba of Jejuri and Vithoba of Pandharpur. They have no divisions and belong to the Shandilya and Mahendra family-stocks. Members of the same family-stock cannot inter-marry. Like local Kunbis they are dark, strong and well-made. Both in-doors and out-of-doors they speak broad Marathi. They rank below Brahmans and Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic gods like Kunbis and hold Vithoba of Pandharpur in special reverence. Like their great ancestor Namdev they belong to the Vaishnav or Bhagvat sect, wear neck-laces of tulsi or sweet basil beads, and every year visit Pandharpur in Sholapur on the lunar elevenths or ekadashis of Ashadh or July-August and of Kartik or October-November. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Breaches of rules are punished with fine or suspension of caste privileges, and enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Niralis: Niralis, properly Nilaris or indigo-dyers, are found all over the district and in large numbers in towns. They have no memory of any former home or of their first settling in the district. They seem to be Maratha-Kunbis and to have separated from the main body of their caste when they took to dyeing. The names in common use among men are Aba, Balaji, Dada, Dhondi, Eknath, Ganpati, Isaba, Jijaba, Shankar and Vithu; and among women, Changuna, Kasai, Manjula, Saku and Rakhamai. Men add appa or father, and women add bai or lady and ai or mother to their names. Their surnames are Bhumkar, Kadarkar, Kalaskar, Kurandi, Mishal, Nakde, Nehulkar, Patankar and Pingre. Persons bearing the same surname cannot intermarry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari, Devi of Tuljapur, Kalkadevi and Khandoba of Jejuri. They are dark, strong and well-built like the local Kunbis, but Niralis can readily be known by their black-stained hands. They speak a corrupt Marathi both at home and abroad. They rank below Kunbis. They worship their family-gods with sandal paste and flowers, and have much reverence for local and boundary gods. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, and ask the local Brahmans to conduct their marriages and deaths. They are Smarts and make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri. and Tuljapur. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes under the guidance of the council.

Otaris: Otaris, or casters, are found in all sub-divisions except Akola and Shevgaon. They have no memory of any former settlement and say they have been eight to ten generations in the district. The names in common use among men are Bapu, Ganu, Govinda, Narayan, Rama and Vithoba; and among women Ahelu, Bhagu, Devaku, Ganga, Salu and Thaku. Their surnames are Mali, Mangarant, Nagre, Pigale, Saluke, Tigare, Vayal and Vaydane. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. They have no sub-divisions. They are dark, tall, strong and well-built. Their speech both at home and abroad is like Kunbi-Marathi. They may be ranked with Kunbis, though neither take food from the other's hand. They are a religious people, worshipping the images of their family-gods Kalakai, Khandoba of Jejuri and Devi of Tuljapur. Their priest is a Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They keep all Hindu holidays and fasts. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings under the guidance of one of the elders. Breaches of caste rules are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts and decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Pardeshi Halvais: Pardeshi Halvais, or confectioners, are found in the town of Ahmadnagar and in Pathardi in Shevgaon. They belong to upper India and have come to the district within the last seventy-five years. The names in common use among men and women, and their surnames are the same as among the Pardeshis. Their home-tongue is Brij and out-of-doors they speak Marathi. In looks, food, drink and dress they are like other Pardeshis. Besides other Brahman gods they worship Devi, Mahadev and Vishnu and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Pardeshi or Kanauj Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Salis: Salis, or weavers, are found all over the district. They claim descent from Vastradhari, the robes-man of the gods, whom the gods accompanied on earth in the form of useful tools. They have passed many generations in the district and have no memory of any earlier home. The names in common use among men and women are the same as among Maratha-Kunbis. Their surnames are Ambte, Ashkar, Bagde, Bhutkar, Changte, Dhaphal, Dhotre, Divane, Gore, Kambale, Mishal, Nichal, Patak, Satpute, Sekatkar, Smashe, Sonak, Songe, Tambe and Valle. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They belong to four divisions, Sakul, Nakul or Lakul, Padam and Chambhar Salis, Sakuls neither eat nor marry with the other three divisions. Lakuls, Padams, and Chambhars neither eat together nor inter-marry, but all eat from Sakuls. They are dark, strong and they speak Marathi with a broad accent. They rank below Maratha-Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic and local gods, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. They daily worship the images of their house-gods with sandal paste, rice and food cooked in the house. They make pilgrimages to Alandi near Pune, Banaras, Jejuri, Pandharpur in Sholapur, and Tuljapur. Their priest is a village Joshi whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They have no religious teacher. They have a caste-council, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Breaches of discipline are punished with fines, the amount being generally spent on a caste-feast. Decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Saltangars: Saltangars, or tanners, are found in Nevasa and Jamkhed. They have no tradition of their origin and no memory of their settlement in the district. The names in common use among men are Balaramsing, Dhansing, Kisansing, Lakshamansing, Mohansing, Padusing, Ramsing and Rupsing; and among women, Champabai, Dhanabai, Hirabai, Jamnabai and Rupabai. Their surnames are Aisivan, Badgujar, Bhavan, Chavle, Jainvale, Javare, Nagore, Padival, Samare, Tandulke and Tepan; persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. They are dark, strong and muscular like local Kunbis. Their home-tongue is Hindustani, and out-of-doors they speak a corrupt Marathi. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Breaches of rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of a caste-feast.

Sonars: Sonars, or gold-smiths, are found all over the district. They are of eight divisions, Ahirs, Devangans, Kadus, Kanades, Lads, Malavis, Panchals and Vaishyas. Of the origin or history of the different classes little information has been traced. The Ahirs probably belong to the great tribe or nation of Ahirs who are closely allied to the Yadavas and are found in large numbers in Khandesh whence they probably passed south to Ahmadnagar. Devangans, properly Devagni Brahmans, are found in large numbers in Nasik, and are said to be the same as Panchals. Kanades, as their name shows, have come north from the Karnataka, but all memory of a former settlement has perished. Lads must at some time have come from south Gujarat, and Malavis from Malwa, but no trace of the time or the cause of their migration remains. The Vaishyas, probably like Vaishyas among Vanis, are the earliest local settlers of the Sonar class. The Panchals are an interesting community from their high claims and their rivalry with local Brahmans. Panchal is generally supposed to mean the men of five crafts. [The five crafts are uncertain. The usual classification is workers in gold and silver, in brass, in wood, in iron, and in stone.] They are an important class in southern India from which according to their own tradition which is probably correct, they have travelled north. Sir W. Elliot notices that in parts of Madras, the Panchals are the Brahmans' great rivals, the leaders of the left-hand castes, with priests and hidden rites of their own which he thought pointed to a Buddhist origin. [Journal Ethnological Society of London, New Services, I, III.] Like the Panchals of Pune and other parts of the Deccan, the Nagar Panchals claim to be Daivadnya or astrologer Brahmans and to be of higher Brahman rank than any of the local Brahmans. The local Brahmans scoff at their claims, because in the past Panchal Sonars made no pretensions to be Brahmans and followed Kunbi customs. Only lately have they begun to make use of Brahman ceremonies. According to local accounts the Brahman dislike to Panchal Sonars is not due to the recent pretensions of the Panchals to be Brahmans. Before and during the time of the Peshwas, Sonars were not allowed to wear the sacred thread, and they were forbidden holding their marriages publicly as it was unlucky to see a Sonar bride-groom. Sonar bride-grooms were not allowed to use the state umbrella or to ride in a palanquin, and had to be married at night and in out-of-the-way places, restrictions and annoyances from which even Mhars were free. The above eight classes form two groups, Devangans, Kanades, Panchals and Vaishyas, who claim to be of high caste and to keep the Brahman rites of purity or sovale, and Ahirs, Kadus, Lads and Malavis who do not claim the right to perform Brahman practices. In appearance the different classes are much alike, town Sonars being like local Brahmans and village Sonars like local Kunbis. All speak Marathi both at home and out-of doors, in style more like Brahman than Kunbi Marathi, but with a drawl and with an odd fashion of using sh for s. The personal names of all the classes are the same among men; they are Dagad, Dhonda, Govinda, Krishna and Rama, and among women Ahalya, Anusuya, Bhagirathi, Ganga and Sita. Men add shet or merchant to their names. Their surnames are chiefly place names, Bansode, Belekar, Chakankar, Champhekar, Chothekar, Dahale, Ghabade, Holam, Honavale, Jajare, Junnarkar, Kapale, Kaljante, Mahamune, Matharne, Mishal, Nighojkar, Parkhe, Phakatkar, Satpute, Shahane and Udavant. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. The names of their family-stocks are Abhavashya, Bhardvaj, Dadhincha or Dadhich, Kashyap, Pratarnasya, Sanakasya, Sanatan, Suparn and Vashishtha. Persons belonging to the same family-stock or gotra cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri and Vyankoba of Tirupati. The Panchals claim to be Brahmans and higher than the local Brahmans. The other divisions rank themselves below Brahmans and above Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They have a priest of their own caste in whose absence the village Joshi officiates at their birth, thread-girding, marriage and death ceremonies. Except the Panchals they hold Brahmans in great respect. Their family-deities are Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri and Satvai whose images they keep in their house and worship daily with sandal paste, flowers and food. They also offer daily sandal paste, flowers and food to their hearth bagesari or goddess of wealth before taking their morning meals. They go on pilgrimage to Banaras, Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. Panchals, Vaishyas, Kanades and Devangans claim to celebrate their marriage according to the Brahman form except that they do not sprinkle the pair with water from a mango twig. At their weddings Ahirs, Malavis, Lads and Kadus follow Kunbi practices. As Kunbis use five leaves or panch pallav as their wedding-guardians, these Sonars make guardians of their pincers or sandas and their blowpipe or phukani. In other respects their wedding is the same as a Kunbi's wedding. Panchals, Vaishyas, Kanades and Devangans shave their widows' heads and do not allow them to marry; Ahirs, Malavis, Lads and Kadus allow widow marriage under the same rules as Kunbis. Formerly Panchals used to observe the same after-death ceremonies as Kunbis. Of late years, since a party among them have begun to claim to be Daivadnya Brahmans, they have begun to copy the full Brahman ritual. They are bound together by strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of their caste-men, under wise men called panchs or mehtars. Smaller breaches of caste-discipline, as keeping their shops open on the last or no-moon day of the month and on holidays, are punished with fines which take the form of caste-feasts; graver offences are punished with loss of caste. Caste-decisions are obeyed on pain of expulsion. Drunkards, open flesh-eaters and adulterers are called before the caste and publicly rebuked. Intricate caste-disputes are referred to Shankaracharya, the Smart pontiff.

Sutars: Sutars, or carpenters, are found all over the district. They call themselves Panchal Sutars and say that they are descended from Tvashta, the divine architect. They have no memory of any former home and no tradition of their settlement in the district. The names in common use among men are Annaji, Bala, Dhondiba, Gangaram, Govinda, Kesu, Krishna, Lakshiman, Mahadu, Narayan, Rakhamaji, Rama and Shankar; and among women Bhagu, Chandrabhaga, Chima, Gangu, Gopika, Kondu, Paru and Yashvada. The men add mestri or mest, that is, foreman to their names. Their surnames are Bhalerai Chandane, Chankar, Dolas, Dorale, Gore, Jagtap, Jhande, Kangle, Khamkar, Khare, Kothale, Pagar, Ravut, Sasane, Shinde, Sonavane and Vaghchaure. Persons bearing the same surname cannot intermarry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They have no divisions and neither eat nor marry with Kadu Sutars. Like local Maratha-Kunbis they are dark, strong and muscular. They speak a corrupt Marathi both at home and abroad. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings under their hereditary head-man, who is treated with much respect. Decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste, and breaches of social discipline are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Tambats: Tambats, or copper-smiths, are found in all parts of the district They claim descent from Tvashta the divine architect and from one of the class of Panchals which is generally supposed to mean five crafts-men. They seem to have come into Ahmadnagar from the Bombay Karnataka. The names in common use among men are Bala, Nana and Savalaram; and among women Chimanabai, Ganga and Vithabai. Their surnames are Bhingarkar, Bhokre, Chaugule, Dakar, Daspurkar, Gujakar, Hamakar, Jitakar, Kalkute, Kharvandkar and Valekar. They have no divisions or family-stocks, and persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-goddess is Kalikadevi of Sirur in Jamkhed, and their speech both at home and out-of-doors is a dialect of Marathi. They rank with local Sutars or carpenters and differ little from them in looks or dress. They are a religious people worshipping their family-gods among other Brahmanic and local gods and keeping all Hindu feasts. Their priest is a local Brahman whom they ask to conduct their ceremonies. They hold their family-goddess Kalikadevi in great reverence worshipping her on the last or no-moon day of Chaitra or April and of Ashadh or July. They have a religious teacher of their own caste whom they highly respect and whose decrees are held final in all social disputes. His office is hereditary and he is the head of a religious house at Mirajgaon in Ahmadnagar. He visits their dwellings every year, and receives a yearly money present from each of his followers whom he advises to be fair and just in their dealings and pious to the gods. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Breaches of social rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts. The caste-people are responsible to their religious teacher whose decisions are obeyed on pain of expulsion. They send their boys to schools, and as a class are well-off.

Telis: Telis, or oil-pressers, are found all over the district They have no memory of any former settlement. They seem to belong to the Maratha-Kunbi caste and to have formed a separate community because they took to oil-pressing. The names in common use among men and women are like Maratha-Kunbi names. Their surnames are Divakar, Dolse, Gaikavad, Ghodke, Kerulkar, Katekar, Lokhande, Mangar, Saijandar and Valmunjkar. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur in Osmanabad district, Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, and Mahadev of Shingnapur in Satara. They are dark, strong and regular-featured, and in looks differ little from local Lingayat Vanis. They worship all Brahmanic and local gods and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a village Joshi whom they call to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They belong to the Vaishnav sect and make pilgrimages to Alandi, near Pune, Banaras, Jejuri and Tuljapur. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Vadars: Vadars, or earth-diggers, are found in small numbers all over the district. They are said to have come from Telangana but have no memory of their arrival in the district. The names in common use among men are Bhavani, China, Durga, Gangaram, Govinda, Hanmanta, Khandu, Lakshuman, Nagu, Pandu, Parsu, Sheshapa, Vithu and Yesu; and among women, Bhagi, Bhima, Chimi, Ganga, Girji, Kashi, Kondi, Lakshmi, Nagi, Narmadi, Parvati, Rakmi, Rami, Rangu and Salu; men add anna or brother and apa or father to their names, and women ava or mother, aka or sister, and amma or mother. Their commonest surnames are Alkute, Chaugole, Dandvat, Dhotre, Gunjal, Kusmand, Maharnavare, Malage, Mandkar, Markad, Pavar, Pitekar, Selar and Vardhappa. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is a corrupt Telugu and out-of-doors they speak a corrupt Marathi. Their family-gods are Balaji or Vyankatraman of Tirupati in North Arkot and Mahadev. They include three divisions Gadi Vadars or cartmen, Janti Vadars or grindstone-makers, and Mati Vadars or earth-men. The first own carts and bullocks, the second are makers of grindstone or jantis and the third take their name from mati or earth. They are dark, strong, muscular, and able to bear great fatigue. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They revere the local Brahmans but do not ask them to conduct any of their ceremonies. They worship their house-gods on holidays and fasts and make pilgrimages to Pandharpur in Sholapur and to Tirupati in North Arkot. They have a religious teacher of their own caste who occasionally visits their dwellings and levies a yearly tribute in money from his followers. He settles social disputes but gives no religious or moral teaching. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste council meetings. They have an hereditary head-man called chaugula, who is greatly respected by the caste though he has no authority over the members of the caste-council panch who are chosen from time to time. Their religious teacher visits their homes, settles social disputes, and hears appeals from the council's decisions. Breaches of discipline are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Musicians: Musicians included two divisions with a strength of 2,707 or 0.38 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR MUSICIANS, 1881

Ghadshis: Ghadshis, or musicians, are found in small numbers all over the district. Most of them have lately come into the district from Pune, Satara and Sholapur, and have no settled homes. Some come in search of work in the fair season and go back to their homes in Pune, Satara and Sholapur during the rains. The names in common use among men and women are the same as among Kunbis, and their surnames are Bhonsle, Chavan, Gaikavad, Ghorpade, Jadhav, More, Pavar, Randge and Survanshi. In looks, dress and food they resemble local Kunbis. They worship all Brahman gods and keep the ordinary fasts and feasts. They are Smarts and their priest is a Deshasth Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at meetings of the caste-men. Breaches of social discipline are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Guravs: Guravs, or priests, are found all over the district. When and why they came into the district is not known. They are probably early settlers the original ministrants in all ling temples. They are of two divisions, Junares, who belong to Junnar in Pune and Nagares, who belong to Ahmadnagar; these two classes do not eat together or intermarry. The names in common use among men and women are the same as among local Brahmans and Kunbis. Their surnames are Achari, Bhade, Dhumal, Gajbhar, Jagdamb, Katekar, Kharate, Shrimat, Shinde and Thorat. Persons bearing the same surname cannot intermarry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Sonari, of Ambadgaon, and of Simpalapur in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur, and Khandoba of Jejuri. As a rule, they are dark, strong and well-made like Kunbis. They belong to the Shiv sect and have house-images of Bhavani, Ganapati and Khandoba. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, and their priest belongs to their own caste, but they often ask the village Joshi to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. Nagare Guravs perform their ceremonies in Brahman fashion and Junare Guravs in Kunbi fashion. They have a caste-council and a head-man called mehetrya and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men under the head-man. Breaches of social rules are punished by fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts, and men put out of caste are not allowed to come back until they give a caste-feast or at least a service of betel.

Servants: Servants included two divisions with a total strength of 11,000 or 1.64 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR SERVANTS, 1881

Nhavis: Nhavis, or barbers, are found all over the district. They have no story of their origin and have no memory of any former home. The names in common use among men and women are the same as those among Kunbis. They are of two divisions, Maratha Nhavis and Mashal or Torch-bearing also called Khandesh Nhavis. The surnames of the Maratha Nhavis are Amte, Bhapkar, Bhople, Bhonsle, Bidvai, Chavan, Dalve, Dandvate, Gadekar, Gaikavad, Gore, Harale, Hirave, Italkar, Jadhav, Kale, Kashid, Keskar, Khadke, Kshirsagar, Lokhaude, Malkar, Mohite, More, Nimbalkar, Pavar, Raikar, Salunke, Shinde, Sonavane, Takpithe, Tanpure, Thorat and Vagmare; and those of the Mashal or Torch-bearing Nhavis, Avti, Bhadani, Gaikavad, Gavli, Jadhav, Karande, Nikamb, Pagar, Pavar, Ravut, Shinde and Vaghmare. In both divisions sameness of surname bars marriage. Maratha Nhavis have no objection to shave the heads of Buruds, Saltangars and Jingars, whom Mashal Nhavis refuse to shave. In looks, food, drink and dress Nhavis differ so little from local Kunbis that one may be easily mistaken for the other. They worship all Brahman gods and keep all the ordinary Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Parits: Parits, or washermen, are found all over the district. They say they were originally Kunbis and separated when they took to clothes-washing. They have no memory of any former home and cannot tell when or why they came to the district. The names in common use among men are Ananda, Bapu, Bhavani, Bhima, Chandra-bhan, Chimna, Dhondu, Gahena, Ganu, Goma, Kesu, Maruti, Mhatarya, Nagu, Pandu, Tulsiram, Vyanku and Yesu; and among women, Bhagirthi, Chimi, Gahni, Godu, Kashi, Manjula, Mathi, Mula, Paru, Rakhmi, Ragu, Saku, Thaku and Yamuna. Men add mehtar or headman, and women bai or lady to their names. Their surnames are Abhange, Admane, Arade, Barate, Barude, Borhade, Bombale, Bhagvat, Dalvi, Desai, Gavli, Gaikavad, Gaivaraikar, Kadam, Kate, Kothale, Landge, Mane, Phand, Ravut, Rokad, Salunke, Sasane, Sirsat, Sonsale, Sonavne, Tarote and Thanekar. Persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their marriage-guardians or devaks are five kinds of leaves or panchpalvis, a mango branch, the leaves of the rui bush Calotropis gigantea, an Indian millet stalk, flowers or twigs of the kalamb Nauclea cadamba, and of the Kartak creeper. Their family-deities are Bahiroba of Agadgaon in Ahmadnagar, Davalmalik of Pune, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They are of two divisions: Parits proper and Kadu Parits, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. In looks and speech Parits cannot be dis-tinguished from local Kunbis. They rank below local Kunbis. Parits worship all Brahman and local gods, keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts, and make pilgrimages to Alandi, Agadgaon, Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. They have a caste-council and a hereditary head-man called mehtar, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men under the head-man. The decisions of the caste-council are enforced on pain of expulsion. At every caste-feast and marriage the head-man's brow is first marked with sandal paste, and to him betel is first served. They send their boys to school but do not take to new pursuits. Town Parits are fairly off, and village Parits are poor.

Shepherds: Shepherds included three divisions with a strength of 40,539 or 5.75 per cent of the then Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR SHEPHERDS, 1881

Dhangars: Dhangars, or cow-men, are found all over the district. As distinguished from Kamathi or Telang Dhangars, Maratha Dhangars are divided into nine classes: Ahirs, Banajis, Gadges, Hatkars, Khute-kars, Marathas, Sangars, Segars and Vaidus. Of these, Hatkars, Segars and Khutekars eat together but do not inter-marry. The rest are entirely distinct neither eating together nor inter-marrying. The following details apply to Maratha Dhangars. The common names among men and women are the same as those of local Kunbis. Their surnames are Agase, Bhagvat, Bhand, Bhite, Bhonde, Bhusari, Buchade, Bule, Chitar, Daphal, Gavate, Ghodage, Ghume, Hajari, Holkar, Jadhav, Kaitake, Kapdi, Kapri, Kasbe, Kasid, Khatekar, Khillari, Lambhate, Makhar, Mandlik, Mang, Marie, Matkar, Mitge, Nagare, Pandit, Phanas, Pingle, Rahij, Rasinkar, Rode, Rodge, Sarode, Savale, Solate, Sonaval, Sudke, Tagad, Tong, Vagmare and Virkar. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-deities are Biroba or Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. As a rule they are dark, strong and muscular. They rank themselves with Marathas, do not eat from Buruds, Kataris and Ghisadis and keep aloof from the impure classes. They worship all Brahmanic gods and goddesses, keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They have a caste-council, and their hereditary head-man is called Gavda, Karbhari, Mirdha (H. meaning a village overseer) or Patil. They say he has no authority to settle social disputes which are generally referred to meetings of elderly caste-men. Breaches of caste-rules are punished with fines which take the form of caste-feasts.

Gavlis: Gavlis, or cow-keepers, are found scattered all over the district except in Akola, Nevasa and Sangamner. They move from place to place in search of pasture for their cattle. They have no story of their origin and no memory of any former setdement, or of the reason or the date of their coming to Ahmadnagar. The names in common use among men are Bhiva, Govinda, Khandu, Nimba. Satvaji and Shetiba; and among women Avadabai, Bhagi, Gopabai, Harnai, Parabai, Rakhmai and Vithabai. Their surnames are Atrunkarin, Aurangabade, Avasekar, Bahirvade, Bhaganagari, Chaukade, Dahivade, Divate, Godalkar, Harab, Hatdurkar, Huchche, Jumivale, Khatade, Langde, Langote, Malku, Nabade and Shahpurkar. Sameness of surname is a bar to marriage. Their family-god is Mahadev, and they have house-images of Devi of Tuljapur, of Khandoba of Jejuri and of Vithoba of Pandharpur. They are divided into Ahirs, Dhangars and Lingayats. The number of Ahir Gavlis found in the district is very small and Dhangar Gavlis are also rare. The following details apply to Lingayat Gavlis:—As a class they are strong, dark and well-made. Their speech both at home and abroad is a corrupt Marathi like that of the local Kunbis. They rank above Kunbis and below local Brahmans. They worship all Brahman gods and keep all fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Jangam or Lingayat or in his absence a village Joshi who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle disputes at meetings of caste-men. A free pardon is granted to those who submit, and serious breaches of social rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts.

Khatiks: Khatiks or butchers, are found all over the district except in Karjat and Sangamner. They belong to the Maratha Dhangar caste and eat but do not marry with Kunbis and Malis. They do not differ in appearance from local Dhangars, and their language both at home and abroad is a Kunbi-like Marathi. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts like Kunbis. Their family-gods are Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They keep the images of their gods in the house, and offer them sandal paste, flowers and food on Mondays, and on full-moon and no-moon days. Their priest is a local Brahman, whom they ask to conduct their marriages. They have no religious teacher of their own and they cannot tell to what sect they belong. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of adult caste-men.

Labourers: Labourers included five divisions with a strength of 33,045 or 4.66 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR LABOURERS, 1881

Bhois: Bhois, or fishers, are found in river-bank towns and villages all over the district except in Akola and Kopargaon. The names in common use among men are Bhikya, Chima, Gangaram, Hari, Khandu, Malhari, Malya, Mhadu, Narayan, Phakir, Sahadu and Vithu; and among women, Bhagi, Bhimi, Chimi, Ganga, Jamni, Kasa, Rahi, Raugi, Saku, Siti, Tai and Yamani. The men add naik or head-man and the women bai or lady to their names. Their commonest surnames are Bhokare, Chavan, Dongre, Gulvant, Ghatmal, Jhate, Kasid, Kathavat, Khatmale, Mahulkar, Nirmal, Shinde, Singar and Tile. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Their family-deities are Bahiroba of Agadgaon, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. They are divided into Maratha Bhois, Mala Bhois, Kachi Bhois and Pardeshi Bhois, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. Of these, Maratha Bhois are alone found in large numbers in the district. They are dark, strong, muscular and regular-featured like Marathas, and both at home and abroad speak a dialect of Marathi. In looks, dwelling, food and drink they differ little from Maratha-Kunbis. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. Their religious teacher is a Kanphatya or slit-ear Gosavi or a pious Brahman. Bhois have a caste-council and settle social disputes at meetings of the caste-men. Breaches of social rules are condoned by caste-feasts and decisions of the caste-council are enforced on pain of expulsion. Among the Bhois the caste-council is highly respected and greatly feared.

Kahars: Kahars, or Bundeli Bhois, are found in small numbers in the sub-divisions of Kopargaon, Nevasa, Rahuri, Sangamner and Shevgaon. They say they came from Bundelkhand in upper India during the time of Aurangzeb. The names in common use among men are Dagadu, Dhondiram, Gangaram, Ganpati, Kisil, Manaji and Shivram; and among women Bhagu, Chima, Parvati and Sita. Men add ram or sing to their names, and women bai or lady to theirs. Their commonest surnames are Bhandare, Gangole, Lachure, Lakde, Lakreyda, Libre, Luchnare, Mehere, Padre and Sambre. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-goddess is Saptashringi in Nasik, and their home-tongue is Hindustani. They have no sub-divisions. They are dark, strong and muscular like Bhois. They rank above Bhois and below Pardeshis or Rajputs, and eat at the hands of local Kunbis. They worship all Brahman gods and keep the ordinary Hindu fasts and feasts. They have images of their family-deities in their houses and worship them with sandal paste, flowers and food. Their priest is a Pardeshi or upper India Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men called panchs. Small breaches of social rules are condoned by the nominal punishment giving pansupari or betel to the caste-men, and graver faults by caste-feasts, and the decisions of the caste-council or panch are enforced on pain of expulsion. They have a head-man whose office is hereditary and who is shown special honour at all marriages and caste-feasts.

Kamathis: Kamathis are found in Nagar, Nevasa, Parner, Sangamner and Shrigonda. They seem to be of Telugu origin and are said to have come from the Nizam's country. The names in common use among men are Elappa, Karadi, Lingu, Nagu, Posheti, Rajanna, Shivappa and Yallappa; and among women Akubai, Bhagi and Yallubai. Men add appa or father and anna or brother to their names, and women bai or lady to theirs. Their surnames are Kutolu, Pilaleli and Totoladu. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. They have no sub-divisions and are dark, strong and well-made. They rank with Kunbis and worship Bhavani of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri, Mahadev, Virbhadra and Vyankoba of Tirupati. They make pilgrimages to Alandi and Tuljapur. They worship all local gods and keep the regular Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Telang Brahman who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. Their priest is their religious teacher and they share the local beliefs in witch-craft, sooth-saying and evil spirits. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of the Pune Kamathis.

Lamans: Lamans also called Charan Vanjaris to distinguish them from Mathurji Vanjaris who are seldom seen in the district and are found in small numbers in all sub-divisions except in Jamkhed and Shrigonda. They have no story of their origin, and they say they have come from Marwar and settled in the district though when and why they do not know. The names in common use among men are Chatru, Devu, Gemapa, Ghola, Kalya, Kilat, Kharadya, Krishna, Lakshman, Punja, Rama, Ravanya, Tulsi and Udadapa; and among women Avani, Budhi, Chalki, Dadi, Dhamki, Hunki, Kesali, Patki, Phupi, Radhi, Saki and Suva. Their surnames are Chavan, Holkar, Mudh, Pavar, Ratvad and Shinde. Sameness of surname is a bar to marriage. They have no sub-divisions. As a class they are dark, strong and well-made. With Vyankoba of Tirupati and Mariai as their family-deities, they worship all Brahmanic gods. Of the regular Hindu fasts they keep only Gokulashtami in August, and their feasts are Shimga in March, Dasara in September, and Divali in October. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriages. They have a caste-council, and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men.

Vanjaris: Vanjaris, or caravan-men, are found all over the district. They say they came into the district from the Bombay Karnataka though when and why they do not know. Vanjaris are of four divisions: Bhusarjin, Ladjin, Mathurajin and Ravjin. Of these, Ravjins are the chief Ahmadnagar class and to them alone the following details apply:—The common names among men are Apa, Bapu, Ganu, Govinda, Rama and Vithoba; and among women Ganga, Manjula, Mukta, Rakhma, Saku and Thaku. Their commonest surnames are Akhade, Bakre, Bhadade, Bodke, Changle, Dangat, Evul, Kalhate, Kanhere, Karke, Lambe, Murtadak, Ramayane, Sarange, Savale and Varade. Their family-deities are Bahiroba of Sonari, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri. Their marriage-guardians or devaks are the panchpalvis or five leaves, the feathers of the tas or Blue Jay Coracias indica, and of leaves of the nagvel or betel vine. Sameness of surname but not sameness of devak is a bar to marriage. As a rule they are dark, strong and well-built like local Kunbis. Like the Kunbis of the district they speak a broad Marathi. They rank with Kunbis and worship all Brahmanic gods and keep the regular Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their chief ceremonies. They lay sandal paste, flowers and food and bow before all local gods, and make pilgrimages to Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur. Their religious teacher is the priest at the religious house of Abaji Bava of Kasargaon in Sangamner, and their social and religious customs are the same as those of Maratha-Kunbis.

They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. If the disputants do not agree to abide by the decision of the caste-council they are referred to the religious teacher whose decision is final, and is enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Depressed classes: Depressed classes included five divisions with a total strength of 96,832 or 13.7 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR DEPRESSED CLASSES, 1881

Bhangis: Bhangis, or sweepers, are found in Akola, Ahmadnagar, Nevasa and Sangamner. Their origin is unknown, but they seem to have come into the district from Gujarat and Marwar, though when and why they cannot tell. The common names among men are Davu, Dayadev, Dhana, Evaj, Jali, Kallu, Kesav, Kisan, Papa, Seva and Shaikbanna, and among women Banu, Jangi, Ladu, Muli, Panha, Pyara and Radha. They have no surnames and persons of the same kin cannot inter-marry. They are divided into Bhasods, Chajgadis, Helas, Lalbegis, Makhiyars and Shaikhs. Of these, Lalbegis and Shaikhs eat together but do not inter-marry, and are considered higher than the other four who do not inter-marry or eat together. They are dark, strong and muscular and speak Hindustani, both at home and abroad. Bhangis worship both Hindu gods and Musalman saints. Of Hindu feasts they keep Shimga in March, Dasara in September, and Divali in October. They fast on the lunar elevenths or Ekadashis of Ashadh or July and Kartik or October, on Gokulashtami in August and on Shiv's Night or Shivratra in February. Their priest, a Husaini Brahman, conducts their marriages. Shaikhs profess to be Musalmans, do not keep Hindu holidays or fasts, and ask the Kazi or Musalman priest to officiate at their marriages, and to circumcise their sons. Lalbegis make a miniature tomb or turbat in a niche in the wall and plant a green flag near the tomb. They keep Musalman as well as Hindu holidays and fasts. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and leave their head-man or mehtar to settle social disputes. Breaches of caste-rules are punished with fines which take the form of a caste-feast. Offenders who cannot pay the fine have to carry round a tobacco pipe for the caste-people to smoke and are pardoned. Caste-decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Chambhars: Chambhars, or shoe-makers, are found all over the district. Their origin is unknown. They have no tradition of their arrival in the district and no memory of any earlier home. Their surnames suggest that they originally belonged to the Maratha Kunbi caste and were degraded because of working in leather. The names in common use among men are Anaji, Bhavani, Dhondi, Govinda, Hari, Krishna, Mukta, Nana and Rama; and among women, Ahili, Bhagu, Chimi, Gangi, Mathi, Rakhma, Rangi, Sahi, Salu and Savitri. Their surnames are Agavane, Bansure, Bhagvat, Damare, Deshmukh, Devre, Dhorge, Durge, Gaikavad, Girimkar, Hulamke, Judhav, Jamdhare, Kabade, Kadam, Kadme, Kalge, Kamble, Kande, Kavde, Kedar, Lagchavre, Natke, Pavar, Salve, Satpute, Shinde, Sonavni and Vaghe. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their family-gods are Bahiroba of Pimpalapur, and of Karjat in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri, and Mahadev of Shingnapur in Satara. They have no sub-divisions. They are dark, strong and well-made with a dull expression and high cheek-bones, but their women are fair and better-looking. They speak Marathi both at home and out-of-doors. On their feast and fast days they worship the images of Bahiroba, Devi, Khandoba and Mahadev,. and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a Deshasth Brahman to whom they show great respect. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Banaras, Jejuri aud Tuljapur. They worship all local gods. Their religious teacher is a Lingayat priest before whom they bow and whom they give a money present. Chambhars are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings under the advice of their hereditary head-man who is called mehtar. Breaches of caste-rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts. If he cannot pay the fine a poor man has to bow before the caste and ask their pardon.

Dhors: Dhors, or tanners, are found all over the district except in Akola. They have no tradition of their coming to the district or of any former home. They have no sub-divisions. The names in common use both among men and women are the same as Kunbi names. Their surnames are Borode, Hasanale, Holkar, Kalmbe, Katakdavnde, Kaikan-dadre, Kavale, Kelgandre, Mankar, Munimani, Navayane, Nanande, Sadaphale, Salunke, Shinde and Trimbake; persons with the same surname cannot inter-marry. In looks, speech, food and dress they are more like Chambhars than any people of the district. They rank below Kunbis and Malis, not eating from the hands of Chambhars and other classes reckoned impure. They are a religious people worshipping all Brahmanic, boundary, and local gods and keeping all Hindu holidays and fasts. They have a special reverence for their family-god Mahadev of Shingnapur in Satara, to whose shrine they often make pilgrimages. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriages, but his place is often taken by a Jangam whom such of the Dhors as worship Shiv hold in high honour. Most Dhors choose some holy man of their own caste as a religious teacher; if he dies they seldom choose a new teacher. They are bound together by a caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Breaches of social rules are punished by fines which take the form of caste-dinners and the decisions are enforced on pain of loss of caste.

Mangs: Mangs are found all over the district. They trace their descent from a Mhar whom the saint Jambrishi set to guard his cow and who ate the cow instead of watching her. For this he was cursed by the saint with the name mang or cruel. They are divided into Chapalsandes, Garudis, Holars, Jiraits, Mangs proper, and Thokar-phodes who neither eat together nor inter-marry. The bulk of Ahmadnagar Mangs are Jiraits. Their personal names are the same as among Mhars, and their surnames are Alhat, Apte, Avar, Bhise, Bhode, Divte, Gavli, Jadhav, Jagtap, Jannavare, Kable, Kulukhe, Khude, Kote, Kunchekar, Lokhande, Londhe, Nade, Netke, Pardhi, Patule, Pavar, Pitare, Rajguru, Sasane, Sathe, Shenge, Thokar and Vairat. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is a dialect of Marathi. They do not pronounce nasals properly and cannot rightly sound two consonants joined by a single vowel. Their family-deities are Bahiroba, Khandoba of Jejuri, Mahamari and Mhasoba. They are strong, coarse-featured and well-made and can be readily known from Kunbis and Malis by their darker colour. They rank lowest among Hindus. They say they worship all Hindu gods, keep all feasts, and fast on the lunar eleventh or Ekadashi in every fortnight, on Shiv's Night or Shivratra in February, and on Mondays and Saturdays in Shravan or August. They ask Deshasth Brahmans to conduct their marriages. Their favourite goddess is Mariai or Mother Death, the cholera goddess. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings under their own head-man or mehtar.

Mhars: Mhars are found all over the district. They are found on the skirts of all Hindu settlements and say they belong to one of the four cow-born castes. Their story is that the cow asked her sons how they would treat her after she died. The first three sons answered they would worship her as a goddess; the fourth said he would bear her inside of him as she had borne him. The horror-struck brothers called him Mahahar or the Great Eater, which, according to the story, use has shortened to Mhar. According to a Hindu tradition Mhars were originally night-rovers or nishachars, whom the god Brahma turned to men lest they should eat his whole creation. Mhars have no memory of any former home. They say they are sprung from the moon, and were ruled by many kings of the moon-race among whom Nak was the most famous. Mhars are commonly known as Dharniche put or sons of the soil. They were formerly arbiters in all boundary disputes. They also hold an important part in all village religious rites. The names in common use among men are Balya, Bhagya, Gondappa, Khima, Mahadji, Munja, Narya, Sadya, Saka and Tukappa; and among women Aheli, Bhagi, Chimi, Gagi, Kushi, Mani, Nagi, and Tuki. The men add nak properly naik or leader, to their names. Their surnames are Abhang, Auchat, Bahelime, Bhambal, Bhingar, Bholke, Basede, Chhet-tlse, Dahane, Darule, Davle, Detge, Dive, Gaikvad, Gote, Ghode, Kadam, Kakte, Kamle, Kekade, Khupte, Lokhande, Makasare, Mehede, Mhasket, Pacharne, Pakhre, Patekar, Pavur, Salve, Samidar, Shinde, Sirsat, Tadke, Tapichere, Umbale, Vaghmore and Vidhate. Sameness of surname is a bar to marriage. Their speech both at home and abroad is a corrupt Marathi, and they find it difficult to pronounce nasals and two consonants when they come together. Their family-deities are Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Bhadvi, Devi of Tuljapur, Janai, Jokhai, Khandoba of Jejuri and Mesai in Ahmadnagar. Mhars are divided into Anantkulyas, Andvans, Bavnes, Bavises, Bels, Dharmiks, Kosaryas, Ladvans, Pans, Sirsalkars, Somvanshis and Tilvans. Of these Anantkulyas, Andvans, Bavnes and Bels are found in Ahmadnagar. These four eat together and inter-marry. Somvanshis are said to be born of the moon or som; Anandvans or Andvans are said to be descended from a widow; Ladvans from an unmarried girl; and Anantkulyas from a Mhar murli or devotee of Khandoba. As a class, Mhars are dark, tall, strong and muscular, with well-cut features and low fore-heads. Among other Brahmanic and local gods they worship Bhadvi, Chokhoba Mariai and Mesai, and have house-images of Bhavani, Khandoba, and Vithoba, and metal masks or taks as emblems of their deceased ancestors. Their priests are either local Brahmans whom they ask to conduct their marriages, or men of their own caste whom they call Bhats and also ask to conduct their marriages. They call in Brahmans only when no Bhat is available. They make pilgrimages to Banaras, Alandi and Jejuri in Pune, and Shingnapur in Satara, and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They are both Smarts and Bhagvats; some of them belong to the Manbhav sect, and many are followers of Kabir. A few, who are disciples of Chokhamela, wear sweet basil or tulsi bead neck-laces, and make periodical pilgrimages to Alandi and Pandharpur, passing their nights in praying or singing sacred songs or abhangs. The pious among them have singing clubs where they sing in praise of some Hindu god especially of Ram or Vithoba of Pandharpur. Both men and women are good singers, and go in bands of two or more singing and begging. Their religious teachers belong either to the Kabir, the Vaishnav, or the Manbhav sects. These teachers are Mhars and are treated with the greatest respect. They have caste-council, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Beggars: Beggars included thirteen divisions with a strength of 7,766 or 1.09 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR BEGGARS, 1881

Bhorpis: Bhorpis, or strolling players, are found in Jamkhed, Sangamner and Shevgaon. Their surnames are Bodke, Gaikavad, Ghumre, Pavar, Shinde and Vaghmare and the names in common use among men and women are the same as among Kunbis. Persons bearing the same surname do not inter-marry. They are dark, strong and muscular like local Kunbis, and their speech, both at home and abroad, is a corrupt Marathi. They are Smarts by religion, and, on holidays after bathing and before dining lay flowers and sandal paste before the images of Bahiroba, Janai, Jokhai and Khandoba. They worship all local gods, and ask a local Brahman to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of Kunbis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at meetings called panchs or caste-councils.

Chitrakathis: Chitrakathis, or picture showmen, are found in Karjat, Ahmadnagar, Nevasa, Rahuri and Shrigonda. Their names and surnames are the same as those of Kunbis, from whom they do not differ in food, drink or dress. They keep images of Bahiroba, Devi, Ganapati, Khandoba, Mahadev and Maruti in the houses and daily lay sandal paste and flowers before them in the morning after bathing. They have a caste-council and settle disputes at caste-meetings.

Gondhlis: Gondhlis, or Gondhal dancers, are found all over the district. Their origin is unknown. The names in common use among men and women are the same as among Marathas. Their surnames are Bekre, Bhandare, Dhumal, Dungu, Gaikavad, Ghatekar, Guradkar, Jadhav, Jagtap, Kate, Kolhatkar, Marathe, Maherkar, Palaskar, Renke, Shinde, Supalkar, Tarte, Thite, Tipke, and Uble. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their speech at home and abroad is a corrupt Marathi. They are of two divisions: Renukarai and Kadamrai, who eat together but do not inter-marry. They rank below Kunbis. Their family-goddess is Devi of Tuljapur and their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriages. They worship all local gods and keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of the Pune Gondhlis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Their hereditary head-man is called patil or Chaugula.

Gosavis: Gosavis, including Bairagis or hermits, are found all over the district. Most members of their order or school of brotherhood belong to upper India. They are divided into two classes, regular Gosavis or mahants and secular Gosavis or sadhus. The regular Gosavis are a class of wandering beggars who make pilgrimages to all sacred places in India, and are not allowed to marry on pain of expulsion; the secular Gosavis can marry.

Kanjaris: Kanjaris are found in Nevasa and Shrigonda. They have come from Sholapur and look like local Mangs. Their home-tongue is Gujarati and they speak Marathi abroad. They worship the images of Mariai and Muhammedan saints or pirs, but do not keep holidays or fasts. They have no religious teacher or priest, and they make no pilgrimages. They settle social disputes at meetings of their caste-people, and breakers of caste-rules are forbidden huka pani or smoking and drinking with their caste-fellows. This punishment is much feared and the offender craves pardon by giving a caste-feast when he is allowed to smoke the rest.

Kolhatis: Kolhatis, or tumblers, are found wandering all over the district except in Akola. They are a good-looking class, particularly the women. They speak a mixture of Marathi, Gujarati, Kanarese and Hindustani. They are a wandering tribe and carry their huts on their heads or on donkeys. The names in common use for men and women and their surnames are the same as those of the Pune Kolhatis. They worship the Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri and the local Maruti with flowers and sandal paste, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriages. Their religious and social customs are the same as those of the Pune Kolhatis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Manbhavs: Manbhavs, or the respectable, are found in all parts of the district except in Karjat. They have no tradition of their origin. The order seems to have been for ages recruited from children vowed to Manbhav saints by parents who have long remained childless. They are divided into secular and regular Manbhavs. The secular Manbhavs are divided into Gharbhari Manbhavs who are regular Manbhavs who have forfeited their religious position by marrying or by breaking any other rule of their order and Bhole or nominal Manbhavs who accept the principles of the order in so far as they do not interfere with the rule of their caste. The members of the regular order are known as Bairagi or true Manbhavs. They admit both men and women of all except the impure castes, but they are not allowed to marry on pain of forfeiting their order and falling to the position of lay or Gharbhari Manbhavs. They live in strict celibacy, entirely give up caste distinctions, and follow the rules laid down in the holy Bhagvadgita. Of the secular Manbhavs who marry and live as lay house-holders, the Gharbhari Manbhavs give up all caste distinctions, and members of all castes except Bhole or nominal Manbhavs eat together but do not inter-marry. Secular Manbhavs keep their original family-surnames and customs and among them persons bearing the same surname do not inter-marry. The names in common use among men are Govinda, Krishna and Rama; and among women Bhagi, Ganga and Radha. They speak Marathi both at home and abroad. In their religious houses or maths arrangements are made for the convenience of travellers of other castes who occasionally visit the maths. The head of the religious house is called Mahant or saint. He owns cattle and sometimes horses, and the novices or chelas wait on him as servants. Their staple food is wheat-cakes or millet-bread, pulse with clarified butter, vegetables and chopped chillies or chatni. They are strict vegetarians. They regularly bathe and lay flowers and sandal paste in front of the images of Dattatreya and Krishna before the morning meal. Some, instead of bathing, wash their hands and feet with water, as they are afraid that in bathing they may take the lives of the small water-insects. On the day after Gokulashtami in Shravan or August and Dattajayanti in Margashirsh or December, they treat their friends and relations to a dinner of wheat-cakes stuffed with boiled pulse and molasses called puranpolis, rice, wheat-flour balls or ladus and fried wheat-cakes or puris. The regular or religious Manbhavs keep only these two holidays, while the secular Manbhavs keep all days observed by the men of their caste. Both men and women shave their heads clean, and the men the face as well as the head. The men dress in a black waist-cloth, a black shoulder-cloth, a coat or kaphni, a skull-cap and country shoes or sandals. Neither men nor women pass the end of their waist-cloth back between the feet, and they are not allowed to use any colour but black. They wear a garland of sweet basil or tulsi wood beads about their neck. The women do not wear the usual bodice and robe, but dress in a black piece of cloth, and put on a coat or kaphni covering their head with a skull-cap, or surrounding it with a head-scarf. Women wear shoes and never put on any ornaments except the tulsi neck-lace. Lay or householding Manbhavs dress like the people of their original caste, and have a store of clothes and ornaments for holiday wear. As a rule the religious Manbhavs are clean, honest, orderly, hard-working, hospitable and particularly independent. Regular Manbhavs are beggars and householding and nominal Manbhavs follow their hereditary callings, living as husbandmen, weavers and money-lenders. Regular or religious Manbhavs, both men and women, rise early, go through the streets, begging, and return at ten. The men then bathe and worship their gods, while the women cook the food. The men then eat, and after dinner read their holy books. The women mind the house and listen to some of the men reading sacred books. In the evening the men again worship their gods, sup, and go to bed. The women eat after the men and retire for the night. Secular Manbhavs beg alms in the morning, return home, bathe, and lay sandal paste, flowers, and food before Dattatreya and Krishna and dine. After dinner they take to their calling of weaving or husbandry, return home in the evening, wash their hands and feet, pray to their gods, sup and go to bed. The women mind the house, eat after the men, and retire for the night. Secular Manbhavs are not bound to beg, but they must offer prayers to their gods both before the morning and the evening meal. As they include men of all castes, except the impure classes, Manbhavs rank below Brahmans and above the impure classes. They worship Dattatreya and Krishna, following the rules laid down in the Bhagvadgita. They neither worship other gods nor stay or even drink water in local temples. They make pilgrimages to the monasteries of their saints. The regulars ought to remain in strict celibacy, and forfeit their position if they break this vow. For at least three days, regular Manbhavs do not take food in or live in a village where a murder has been committed or an accidental death has taken place, and if a death happens at any place they are living at, they will not eat until the corpse-bearers have returned from the funeral ground. Their leading belief and rule of conduct is to take no life. In obedience to this rule they neither cut living trees nor pluck plants, grass or fruit. The most religious member of a Manbhav religious house is chosen to be the head and is called mahant literally great. They keep two fasts on Gokulashtami in August and on Dattajayanti in December, passing the days in worshipping Krishna and Dattatreya and the nights in reading sacred books. Next day they feed the caste-people. Regular or Bairagi Manbhavs do not respect Brahmans, and profess not to believe in witch-craft or evil spirits. Gharbharis worship the local gods, keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts, and believe in witch-craft, sooth-saying and evil spirits. Regular Manbhavs perform the initiation and death ceremonies only, while house-holding and nominal Manbhavs keep all their original caste-customs. A novice is admitted into the order at fifteen. The time of entering the order is Chaitra or April, Shravan or August, Kartik or October, and Margashirsh or November, and the place is the temple of Krishna. On the day of entering the order, the Manbhavs meet at the temple of Krishna and the boy gets his head and face clean-shaved, and is bathed and presented with a black waist-cloth and shoulder-cloth. His head is marked with white sandal paste, and garlands of tulsi or sweet basil wood are tied round his neck and wrists. He bows before the image of Krishna and before the monk who acts as his religious teacher, and tells him the three chief rules of the order, that a novice ought to live by begging, ought to keep from any kind of life-taking or hinsa, and ought to follow the way of truth. Next day the ceremony ends by a dinner to all Manbhavs at the expense of the novice or of his teacher. The novice has to wait on his teacher or guru, and follow him like a slave wherever he goes. Gharbhari Manbhavs are initiated, but they do not put on black clothes and they follow their father's callings. They marry among themselves with rites similar to those of Kunbis. Formerly a Manbhav man and woman were considered husband and wife if they laid their wallets or jholis together. This practice is said to be no longer in use. Gharbharis and Bholes do not shave the whole head and face. They treat the Manbhav monks with great respect and follow Manbhav rules except when they come in the way of their caste-customs. They keep to the customs of their parents which they perform after the fashion of Kunbis. All Manbhavs bury the dead. A religious Manbhav is laid in a wooden frame called makhar, with his wallet or jholi and his staff, and taken to the burial-ground with music and a band of mourners. If there is no makhar or frame the body is laid on a blanket and carried by four men to the burial-ground. A grave is dug and the dead is laid in the grave. The mourners offer prayers to Krishna, and fill the grave with salt and earth. The dead brother's favourite disciple feeds a company of Manbhavs one to nine days, and on the tenth presents them a waist and shoulder cloth and with cash. Gharbhari Manbhavs bury the dead, and on the tenth day feed caste-men in the name of the dead. They allow widow marriage and polygamy, but not polyandry. Religious Manbhavs have a caste-council, and breaches of the rules of the order are punished with expulsion, or with fine which generally takes the form of a caste-feast. If the offender refuses to pay the fine, he becomes a Gharbhari or lay Manbhav.

Mairals: Mairals are found only in Jamkhed. Their personal names and surnames are the same as those in use among Kunbis. They speak Marathi both at home and abroad. Besides other Brahmanic gods, they worship the Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri and keep all fasts and feasts. Their priest is a village Joshi who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. Their religious and social customs are like those of local Kunbis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Maratha Gopals: Maratha Gopals, literally cow-keepers, are found all over the district except in Akola and Kopargaon. They are said to be descendants of children vowed to the gods. The names in common use among men and women are the same as those among Kunbis, and their surnames are Bahmane, Dhangar, Dhogde, Gajakos, Gaikavad, Gavne, Gire, Hambirrav, Jadhav, Kulal, Lonare, Pavar, Sali and Vanjare. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is Marathi and their family-deities are Bahiroba, Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri, and Mariai. They rank below husbandmen. They worship the images of Devi of Tuljapur, Kanhoba, Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, and Mhasoba with offerings of sandal-paste, flowers and food. They ask a Deshasth Brahman to conduct their marriage ceremonies, worship all local gods, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings under the presidency of their head-man or patil.

Panguls: Panguls, or cripples, are found wandering all over the district. Their personal names and their surnames are the same as those of Kunbis from whom they do not differ in looks, dress, food or drink. They live in wattled huts thatched with straw, and when on the move, they lodge at the houses of Kumbhars with whom they do not eat. They speak a corrupt Marathi both at home and abroad. They worship the images of Bahiroba, Devi Janai, Khandoba and Mahadev, and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. They visit local shrines, bow before the idols, and ask local Brahmans to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They are Smarts and their social and religious customs are the same as those of the Pune Panguls. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Sahadev Joshis: Sahadev Joshis, or astrologers, are found all over the district. They trace their origin to Sahadev, but have no tradition when and why they came into the district. Their personal names and their surnames are the same as among Kunbis, and their family-deities are Devi of Tuljapur, Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, Mariai, Sidoba and Yallamma. They are divided into Dadhivalas or beard-wearers also called Mankars that is respectables, and Kudmudas or rattle box players also called Gadvals that is fortune-tellers who eat together and inter-marry. Like the distinct class of Tirmalis, Dadhivala Joshis keep a large bull, deck him with coloured clothes and brass bells and ornaments and beg by showing him to the people. Kudmuda Joshis play upon a sandglass-shaped double drum called dour and beg from door to door; Mankar Joshis throw a wallet around their shoulders and move from door to door, pleasing the house-owners by wishing them well and foretelling good things. As a class they are dark, thin and middle-sized. Their home-tongue is a dialect of Marathi. They rank below Kunbis. They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep all Hindu fasts and feasts. Their priest is a local Brahman whom they ask to conduct their marriages. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of Kunbis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings. Most disputes are referred to their hereditary head-man called Patil, who lives in Pune and settles disputes.

Takaris: Takaris, or hand-mill-makers, are found in Jamkhed, Karjat and Nagar. They seern to have come from Telangana and are dark, strong and muscular like Kunbis. Their home-tongue is Telugu and they speak Marathi abroad. They keep the images of Bahiroba, Devi and Khandoba in their houses, and lay flowers and food before them on all Hindu holidays and fasts. They worship all local gods and keep the usual fasts and feasts. Their priest is one of their own number whom they ask to conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They never repeat texts from the Veds or Purans at their ceremonies. Their other customs are similar to those of the Kunbis. They have a caste-council and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Vasudevs: Vasudevs are found in Nevasa only. They claim descent from Sahadev. They are late-comers and wander from place to place all over the district. In looks, dwelling, food and dress they do not differ from Kunbis. They rank next to Kunbis. They are Smarts and worship the images of Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur, of Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune, and of the local Maruti. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, and make pilgrimages to Alandi in Pune, Pandharpur in Sholapur, and Tuljapur. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriages. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings.

Unsettled Tribes: Unsettled Tribes included eight divisions with a strength of 36,814 or 5.2 per cent of the Hindu population in 1881. The details are:

AHMADNAGAR UNSETTLED TRIBES, 1881

Bharadis: Bharadis, a class of dancing beggars, are found all over the district. They say they are Maratha-Kunbis who were put out of caste when they joined the Nath sect and became followers of Gorakshnath. They are wandering beggars who sing praises of the gods, dance and play on the daur or hourglass-shaped drum. They have no memory of any former home and seem to have lived in the district for many generations. The names in common use among men are Bahirnath, Dhondu, Goma, Gopala, Govinda, Hari, Joti, Khandu, Kusha, Pandu, Rajnath, Rama, Tukaram and Yamaji; and among women Ahalai, Bhagi, Bhima, Dhondi, Gaji, Ganga, Maina, Manjula, Mukti, Parvati, Rakhma, Rangu, Saku, Salu, Thaku and Thami. The men add nath or lord to their names and the women bai or lady to theirs. Their commonest surnames are Aher, Chavan, Devgune, Dharde, Gaikavad, Gund, Haral, Jadhav, Rajle, Shinde, Vable and Vamne. Persons with the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Their speech, both at home and abroad, is a dialect of Marathi, and their family-deities are Bahiravnath of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Mahur, and of Tuljapur, Jotiba in Ratnagiri and Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune. They belong to three divisions: Bharadis proper, Mendjogis meaning rude beggars, and Sali Malis who neither eat together nor inter-marry. They look like local husbandmen. They are a religious class worshipping besides all Brahmanic and local gods, Bahiravnath of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur, Jotiba of Ratnagiri and Khandoba of Jejuri and keeping the regular fasts and feasts. Their priest is a village Joshi whom they ask to conduct their marriages. They belong to the Nath sect, worshipping Bahiravnath and making pilgrimages to Jejuri, Pandharpur, Sonari and Tuljapur. Their religious teacher is a Kanphatya or slit-ear Gosavi whose post is elective and falls to the worthiest disciple. When the religious teacher visits the house of a Bharadi the house-holder washes his teacher's feet, seats him on a low stool, rubs his brow with sandal-paste, offers him flowers and sweetmeats, bows low, and lays money before him. Bharadis have a caste-council and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men under head-men called chaugulas, patils and karbharis. Breaches of social rules are punished with fines which take the form of caste-feasts, or, if the offender is poor, of a betel service. The patils, chaugulas and karbharis are much respected and feared by the caste-people and their office is hereditary.

Bhils: Bhils are found all over the district except in Akola, Jamkhed, Karjat and Shrigonda. They have no tradition of their coming into the district but they believe that their original home was in the Satpuda hills. During the eighteenth-century disturbances the Bhils tried to become independent. They have settled to an orderly life. The names in ordinary use among men are Ahalvadi, Bapu, Bhima, Chandu, Dagdu, Ganji, Hirya, Khaba, Khanu, Narayan, Navji, Rama, Tukaram and Vithoba; and among women, Bhagi, Bhimi, Bhivra, Changni, Devki, Ganga, Ghodi, Guji, Kamla, Puni, Ragi, Rahi, Sani, Sugandi and Ulsi. Their surnames are Aher, Barde, Chavan, Devli, Gaikavad, Gang, Ganudi, Gangurdi, Godhde, Jadhave, More, Nikam, Pavar, Piple, Rahire and Salunke. Men add naik or head-man to their names and women bai or lady to theirs. Persons bearing the same surnames cannot inter-marry. Ahmadnagar Bhils are of two divisions: Maratha and Tarvade Bhils, who neither eat together nor inter-marry. As a rule Bhils are a dark, wiry and active people often with flat noses and high cheek-bones and curly hair. At home they speak a dialect which is difficult for strangers to understand, and abroad they speak corrupt Marathi. They rank below Kunbis. Among other Brahmanic gods they worship Devi of Tuljapur and Mariai, and keep all Hindu holidays and fasts. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriages, and they make pilgrimages to Jejuri and to Tuljapur. Their religious teacher is a Bhil ascetic called a Bhil gosavi. They are bound together by strong caste-feeling, and settle social disputes at caste-meetings under their hereditary head-man or mahant. Breaches of social rules are punished with caste-feasts and fines, and poor delinquents are allowed to beg pardon by bowing before the caste-council or by setting their shoes on their heads. An obstinate offender is put out of caste, and on pain of loss of caste, the other caste-men are forbidden to take water from his hands or to smoke with him. His house-hold is excluded from caste-feasts, and he is not allowed to rejoin the community until he submits. If the parties are unwilling to abide by the decisions of the caste-council, they appeal to their religious teacher whose decisions are held final in all caste-matters.

Kolis: Kolis are found all over the district and in the greatest numbers in the hilly sub-division of Akola. [The generally received explanation of the word Koli is clansmen from kul a clan as opposed to Kunbi the family man from kutumb a family. The mythic Brahmanic origin of the Kolis is that they are the same as the Kirats of the Purans, who are said to be descendants of Nishadh who was born from the arm of Ven, a king of the Sun race. The Kolis claim as their mythic founder Valmiki the author of the Ramayan. Mackintosh in Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc. I, 201-202.] Nagar Kolis belong to three classes: Panbharis or Malharis, Dhors and Mahadevs.

Panbhari or water-filling Kolis, also called Malhari or Malhar-worshipping Kolis, are found in almost every plain village in the district. Captain Mackintosh (1836) describes the Malhari Koli as one of the purest and most respectable of all Koli tribes. [Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc. I,191.] One or more families, he says, are settled in almost every village in the Deccan and in Khandesh, along the Baleghat east to Kandhar, Indur and Boden in the Nanded district between the Godavari river and Hyderabad; near Naldurg further to the south-east; in many villages around and south of Pandharpur; and to the south of Pune in the hills of Purandhar, Sinhgad, Torna and Rajgad. As the name Panbhari or water-filler shows, their usual calling is to supply villagers and strangers with water and to clean out the village rest-house and office. Near Pandharpur many Malhari Kolis are veskars or village door-keepers; in Khandesh and Ahmadnagar a few are head-man; and, to the south of Pune, Malhari Kolis were the hereditary guardians of the hill-forts of Purandhar, Sinhgad, Torna and Rajgad. [Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc. I, 191-192.] Malhari Kolis are also called Chumlis from the cloth-fenders they wear on their heads as water-pot-rests. They are also called Kunam Kolis, because, according to Mackintosh, they eat and associate with Kunbis. [Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc. I, 191.]

Dhor Kolis are said to get their name from dhor because they go about selling cattle. [The Ahmadnagar Dhor Kolis seem to differ from the Dhor Kolis of south Gujarat and the North Konkan.]

Neither Panbhari nor Dhor Kolis are of much importance in Ahmadnagar. The leading tribe in Ahmadnagar is Mahadev Kolis who live in the valleys in the east slopes of the Sahyadris from Mulshi in the south-west of Pune north to Trimbak in Nasik, a distance of about 120 miles. Mahadev Kolis are also found westwards in Javhar in the north Konkan, where one Pauperah, a Nasik Koli from Mukni near the Thal pass, established a chiefship in the fourteenth century, and eastwards in the Baleghat or Mahadev hills, the traditional home of the Nagar Mahadev Kolis. According to Koli traditions preserved by Mackintosh [Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc. I,236-238.], the west Deccan originally belonged to Ghadshis or low class musicians who are described as the musicians of Ravan, king of Ceylon. The Ghadshis were conquered by the Gavlis or cow-keepers. Then the Gavlis rose in rebellion against the king of the country. The king sent an army from the north through Khandesh by the Kasarbari pass, but near Kasarbari the rebels attacked and defeated the King's army and put it to flight. The country was so wild and unhealthy that, though a high reward was offered, none of the king's officers were willing to undertake to punish the rebels. At last Sonji Gopal, a Maratha, volunteered, and with the help of a Koli named Vyankoji Kokatta, whose name and exploits in 1830 were still familiar to the Kolis attacked, defeated, and almost destroyed the Gavlis. To till the empty country, a number of Kolis were brought from the Baleghat or Mahadev hills. According to their own account the Kolis' first settlement was in the Ghod valley in the north of Pune, and from this they spread north through Ahmadnagar to Nasik. The tradition by the fact that before the times of the Peshwas, the priests of the Kolis were Raval Gosavis of the Lingayat sect, whose descendants in 1836 were still settled in Chas and Manchar [Mackintosh in Trans. Bom. Geo. Soc. I,237-238. The tradition is further supported by the fact that some of the Telugu-speaking people of Sholapur, whom other people call Kamathis, style themselves Mahadev Kolis. Some of the Bombay Kamathis also call themselves Mahadev Kolis.]. Again the tradition that the first settlements of the Mahadev Kolis in the west Deccan were in the Ghod valley finds support from the fact that the Kolis of that part of the country hold a specially high social position. According to Mackintosh, in 1836, in the neighbourhood of Junnar, Kunbis would drink water and eat food from Kolis, further north in Kotul and Rajur they took water and food but not without scruples, and in Maldesh Kunbis would take neither food nor drink from Mahadev Kolis. The explanation seems to be that as they conquered northwards the Kolis lost caste by inter-marrying with the earlier and lower tribes whom they conquered. Two clans, the Damsahs and the Vaghmorias, are said to represent the residue of the Gavlis who were allowed to join the Koli tribe and the Poriah family of the Kadam clan and the Potkulla family of the Aghashi clan are considered the descendants of the Ghadshis. The Kolis seem to have freely allowed women of other castes to join them, as in 1836 they had still an initiation ceremony for women of other castes. The fact that about 1340 Muhammad Tughlak found the fort of Kondana or Sinhgad, about ten miles south of Pune, in the hands of a Koli chief makes it probable that, at the time of the Musalman conquest of the Deccan, Koli chiefs held some of the north Pune and Nagar hill-forts. The over-throw of the power of the Devgiri Yadavas probably helped the Kolis as about 1347 a Mahadev Koli, named Paupera, was acknowledged by the Bedar king chief of Javhar in north Thana a tract which yielded a yearly revenue of Rs. 9 lakhs and included twenty-two forts several of which seem to have been in Ahmadnagar. By the Bahmanis (1340-1490) and by the Ahmadnagar kings (1490-1636), the Kolis were left almost independent under their own hereditary chiefs or naiks. The Koli country was known as the fifty-two valleys or Bavan Mavals each of which was under its naik or Koli chief, and all the chiefs were under a Musalman head-captain or sarnaik whose head-quarters were at Junnar. Besides the Musalman sarnaik who was the political head of the Kolis, there was a social and religious head, a Koli sarnaik of the Vanakpal clan of the Kheng tribe who was president of the caste council or gotarni which settled civil and religious disputes. The Koli chiefs held a good position both in the Bahmani and in the Ahmadnagar Kingdom ranking among the nobles called sardars or mansabdars of the kingdom. The first reference which has been traced to a rising of the Kolis is about the middle of the seventeenth century. The Kolis disliked the introduction of the survey, apparently Todar Mal's survey which Shah Jahan introduced into the Ahmadnagar territories on the final fall of Ahmadnagar in 1636. They resented the minute measuring of their lands and the fixing of a regular rental. A Koli of the name of Kheni Naik persuaded many of the chiefs to promise to rise against the Moghals on the first chance. The successes of young Shivaji (1645-1657) seemed to the Kolis the chance they were waiting for. The country rose and the revolt was not put down without extreme severity. After this out-break was crushed, the Kolis were treated with favour by Aurangzeb. Under the Peshwas, they gained a high name for their skill and daring in taking hill-forts. One of the most famous exploits of this kind was in 1761, the capture of the fort of Trimbak from the Nizam. The leaders of this storming party Gamaji Bhangria and Kheroji Pattikar, were rewarded with grants of money and villages. During the latter part of the eighteenth century and for many years after the beginning of British rule West Ahmadnagar and the Konkan were at intervals disturbed by the robberies of bands of Koli outlaws. Under the Marathas the most famous leaders of Koli outlaws have been Javji Bomle between 1760 and 1798, Kolhata and Shilkunda in 1776, and Ramji Bhangria between 1798 and about 1814; and, under the English, Ramji Bhangria and Govindrav Khari from 1819 to 1829, Rama Kirva in 1829 and 1830 and Raghoji Bhangria from 1845 to 1858. During the 1857 mutinies the soldier-like qualities of the Kolis were turned to account. An irregular corps 600 strong was found under Captain (later General) Nuttall, and proved most useful and serviceable. Inspite of the want of leisure, the Kolis mastered their drill with the ease of born soldiers and proved skilful skirmishers among hills and in rough ground. Their arms were a light fusil with bayonet, black leather accoutrements, dark green twisted turbans, dark green cloth tunics, dark blood coloured waist-cloths worn to the knee, and sandals. They marched without tents or baggage. Each man carried his whole kit in a haversack and a light knapsack. They messed in groups, and on the march divided the cooking vessels. They were greater walkers, moving with the bright springy step of highlanders, often marching thirty or forty miles in a day over the roughest ground, carrying their arms, ammunition, baggage and food. Always sprightly, clean and orderly, however long their day's march, their first care on halting was to see that their muskets were clean and in good trim. Every time they met an enemy though sometimes taken by surprise and sometimes fighting against heavy odds, they showed the same dashing and persevering courage. Though disturbances were at an end, posts of regular troops were maintained till May 1860. When they were withdrawn their places were taken by detachments of the Koli corps. The Koli corps continued to perform this out-post duty till March 1861 when they were disbanded, and all except a few who entered the police returned to their former life of tillage and field labour. The wisdom of raising the corps had been proved. Instead of heading disturbances as had often happened before and has happened since, the disciplined Kolis were a powerful element in repressing disorder.

Among Mahadev Kolis the men's names in common use are Babrya, Dasumankya, Dhankya, Ghaba, Gogya, Gotrya, Hiru, Khema, Kuma, Lankya, Luma, Mavji, Pangya, Pevji, Tana and Tatya; and the women's Bhori, Bibti, Hiri, Ladi, Lomi, Naki, Paki, Pari, Pili, Sakri, Thaki and Tavli. According to Captain Mackintosh, Mahadev Kolis originally belonged to twenty-four clans or kuls from each of which many offshoots numbering about two hundred and eighteen in all have sprung. The main clans are the Aghasi with three, the Bhagivant with fourteen, the Bhonsle with sixteen, the Budivant with seventeen, the Chavan with two, the Dajai with twelve, the Dalvi with fourteen, the Gaikavad with twelve, the Gavli with two, the Jagtap with thirteen, the Kadam with sixteen, the Kedar with fifteen, the Kharad with eleven, the Khirasagar with fifteen, the Namdev with fifteen, the Pavar with thirteen, the Polevas with twelve, the Sagar with twelve, the Shaikhacha Shesh with twelve, the Shiv with nine, the Sirkhi with two, the Suryavanshi with sixteen, the Utercha with thirteen, and the Vanakpal with seventeen, sub-divisions. Many Kunbis are said to have joined the Kolis and founded new clans or families. These families are very local and confine themselves to certain valleys. Thus in the valley of the Mula river near Kotul in Akola are found Barmals, Barmattis, Bhagvats, Dindles and Ghodes; in the valley of the Pravara to the west of Rajur, Bhandes, Ghanes, Jarres, Kares, Khadales, Pichavs. to which family belongs the deshmukh of Rajur and Sakte; in the country to the north-west of Akola are families of Jadhavs, Godes, Sables, Khetris and Thalpares. Persons bearing the same family-name or surname can eat together and inter-marry, but sameness of kul or clan is a bar to marriage. As a class Mahadev Kolis are dark, short and slender, but strong and muscular, with, as among Kunbis, a dull expression. The women are occasionally pretty and generally pleasing, well-made and slim, and fair and neat. Their speech, both at home and abroad, is corrupt Marathi. They rank below Maratha-Kunbis. Kolis claim to have been originally Marathas. They say that before and during the time of Shivaji, Kolis and Marathas used to eat together, and even now in Ahmadnagar Mahadev Kolis are said to eat with local Kunbis. Kolis are religious and keep house-images of Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahmadnagar, Devi of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune and on all holidays and fasts are careful to lay sandal-paste, flowers, burnt frankincense and food before their gods. They keep all the leading Hindu fasts and feasts, worship Daryabai, Ghorpaddevi, Gunaivir, Hiroba, Kalsubai, Mhaisoba and Navlai, make offerings to Musalman saints, and pay divine honours to the tombs of those who have died a violent death especially if they or their ancestors had any part in causing the loss of life. Their priests are local Brahmans whom they ask to conduct their leading ceremonies. Their original priests were Raval Gosavis, Lingayats by religion, who were supplanted by Brahmans during the reign of the third Peshwa Balaji Bajirav (1740-1761). Kolis make pilgrimages to Jejuri in Pune, Nasik and Pandharpur in Sholapur, their leading holiday is the bright second of Magh or February, and their chief fasts are Shravan Mondays in August, and Shiv's Night or Mahashivratra in February. In former times the Mahadev Kolis had a tribunal named gotrani or family-council for settling social disputes and punishing breaches of morals and social rules. Now smaller breaches of social discipline are punished at caste-meetings, the offender being called on to distribute a certain quantity of clarified butter among the village house-holds. If he is obstinate, the offender is turned out of caste.

Ramoshis: Ramoshis, said to be originally Ramvanshis or descendants of Ram, are found all over the district. Like the Ramoshis of Pune they seem to have come into Ahmadnagar from the south-east though when and why is not known. A Ramoshi can hardly be distinguished from a Kunbi or other middle class Marathi-speaking Deccan Hindu. The features are generally coarse and harsh though many Ramoshis have fine active and well-made bodies. In language, dress, house, food and character they differ little from the Ramoshis of Pune. They worship Bahiroba, Khandoba of Jejuri, Mahadev and Maruti, keep all Hindu feasts and fasts on all Ekadashis or lunar elevenths. They ask a Deshasth Brahman to conduct their weddings. All their social and religious customs are the same as those of Pune Ramoshis.

Ravals: Ravals, or priests of Bhairavnath, are found in small numbers all over the district except in Nevasa and Parner. They claim descent from Gorakshnath, the favourite disciple of Machhendranath. The names in common use among men are Bandu, Bhau, Bhavani, Divba, Garibnath, Govinda, Ramnath, Raghuji, Sakharam, Satvaji, Savlaram and Vithalnath; and among women Bhagirthi, Dhondi, Gangu, Kondi, Rakhma, Rahi, Saku and Sarasvati. Their commonest surnames are Badke, Bhaleri, Bhalerai, Gajalkar, Lakhe, Lamde, Mohite, Nityanath, Parvat, Tant and Vanjhe; and their family-gods are Bara Jotirling and Mahadev. They have no sub-divisions and persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. They look like Jangams or Lingayat priests, and are strong, dark and well-made. They rank below Kunbis. They worship their family-deities, local and boundary gods, keep all Hindu fasts and feasts and visit the shrines of Khandoba of Jejuri in Pune and of Vithoba of Pandharpur in Sholapur. Their priest is a local Brahman who conducts their marriage and death ceremonies. The popular fast days among them are the lunar elevenths or Ekadashis in Ashadh or July and Shravan or August. They belong to the Nath sect, and their religious teacher is a Raval Gosavi who preaches the Nath doctrines to his disciples in the form of a harikirtan or songs in praise of Hari or Vishnu. His office is elective and he has no share in settling caste-disputes.

They have a caste-council, and settle caste-disputes at meetings of adult caste-men or panch under their hereditary head-man or karbhari. Breaches of social rules are punished with fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts, and the decisions of the caste-council are obeyed on pain of expulsion.

Tirmalis: Tirmalis, or performing bullockmen, are found all over the district except in Akola. They are wandering Telugu beggars of the shepherd caste. The names in common use among men are Butu, Govinda, Lakshman, Phakira and Satvaji; and among women, Bhavani, Lakshmi, Tukabai and Yalabai. Their surnames are Gadu, Kadam, Kanchkemodu, Patar and Rasoti. Persons bearing the same surname cannot inter-marry. Their home-tongue is a corrupt Telugu and out-of-doors they speak a broken Marathi. They are worshippers of Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahadev and Vyankoba of Tirupati in North Arkot but they worship other local gods and keep all Hindu fasts. They pay great respect to all classes of Brahmans and, if their means allow, offer them un-cooked provisions on holidays and fasts.

Thakars: Thakars, properly Thakurs or chiefs, are found in Jamkhed and Parner. They have no memory of any former home and are believed to be one of the earliest tribes in the district. Their names and surnames are the same as the names of Thane Thakurs and in appearance, food, character, calling and customs they do not differ from the Thakurs of Thane.

Vaidus: Vaidus, or drug hawkers, are found roving all over the district. They are a wandering class of Telugu beggars. The names in common use among men are Bhimdu, Ellapa, Gangaram, Govinda, Kashiram, Machdu, Maruti and Sinhram; and among women Bhima, Ganga, Gita, Parvati and Sita. They have no surnames or family-names and all except close kins people may inter-marry. Their family-deities are Vyankatraman of Tirupati in North Arkot and Chaturshingi of Pune. They belong to four divisions: Bhoi Vaidus, Dhangar Vaidus, Koli Vaidus and Mali Vaidus. Though these four classes neither eat together nor inter-marry, they differ little from one another in looks, food, character, calling or customs. They are dark, strong and well-made, and speak a corrupt Marathi abroad and dialect of Telugu at home. They rank below local husbandmen. Their family-god is Vyankoba of Giri or Tirupati in North Arkot, but when they are on their wandering tours they seldom carry his image with them. They never go on pilgrimages or keep any fast or feast except Dasara in September, when they offer boiled mutton to their gods and feast on it. Local Joshis are seldom asked to conduct their marriages or any other ceremonies, and they seldom have any religious teacher. They are bound together by a strong caste-feeling and settle social disputes at meetings of caste-men. Breaches of social rules are condoned by caste-feasts or fines which generally take the form of caste-feasts. The decisions of the head-man or patil are final and no one but him is allowed to meddle with caste-matters.

Musalmans : Musalmans include thirty-five divisions, seventeen of which marry together and form the main body of regular Musalmans and eighteen form distinct communities marrying only among themselves.

All Musalmans wear the beard. They are stronger and more muscular and the Bohoras, Memans and Tambatgars are fairer than most Nagar Hindus. The home-tongue of all Musalmans, except of Bohoras and Memans who speak Gujarati and Cutchi, is Hindustani spoken either correctly or with a mixture of Marathi. Many Tambatgars and Marwad dyers used to speak Marwari at home, but they now use Hindustani with a Marwadi accent.

Social disputes are settled and breaches of rules punished by a head-man called chaudhari who decides in accordance with the opinion of the majority of the class. The Bohoras have a separate religious organisation and a religious officer called mulla to settle disputes. The proprietors and other higher classes have no special community or head-man. Their religious difficulties are solved by the maulvi or law-doctor and their social disputes by the arbitration of the elders without any fine or punishment. The Tambatgars settle disputes by calling the men of their community together when the oldest and the most respected members pass a decision. Except the Bohoras and Tambatgars who spend the fines in the repair of their mosques or in giving alms to the poor almost all classes waste the fines in public dinners. Social and other rules are less carefully enforced than they used to be.

Except the Bohoras who are Ismaili Shias of the Daudi sect almost all Ahmadnagar Musalmans are Sunnis of the Hanafi school. The Bohoras have a separate mosque and are careful to pray regularly during Ramzan. Almost all of them go to their mosque daily to pray. Another irregular sect are the Ghair Mahadis or Anti-Mahadis who hold that the Mahadi or expected Saviour has come. In Ahmadnagar the followers of this sect are chiefly servants and soldiers. They believe that Muhammad Mahadi who rose to fame in northern India, Gujarat and Khurasan at the end of the fifteenth century was the promised Mahadi. After his death in 1504 (910 H.) being persecuted by the Moghal emperors of Delhi, his grandson Syed Ahmad came to Ahmadnagar during the reign of Burhan Nizam Shah. He found favour with the king, and not only made him and many of his nobles his disciples but also received in marriage the daughter of the saint Shah Sharif. Ghair Mahadis divide the country in which members of their sect live into dairas or circles of one of which Ahmadnagar is the centre. Though free to profess their opinions the Ghair Mahadis practise concealment and are always anxious to pass as orthodox Muslims. The chief differences between the regular Sunni and the Ghair Mahadi services are that a Ghair Mahadi does not lift his hands while he repeats the dua or blessing at the close of the namaz or prayer; he does not require an imam or prayer-leader as all Mahadis pray together without standing behind a learned maulvi; and they have no mimbar or pulpit. Many of them live at Hyderabad and all are well-to-do. Besides Ghair Mahadis some Tambatgars and a few Naikwaris, mostly at Ahmadnagar, are Wahabis. Wahabis, though free to profess their opinions, are afraid of the orthodox Musalmans and practise concealment. Meman, Tambatgars and the bulk of Ahmadnagar are fairly religious and go to pray daily in the mosque. A few Bagbans or fruiterers, the Kasabs or butchers, the Pinjaras or cotton-teasers and the Takaras or masons are Musalmans in little more than a name and seldom pray to Allah. Bakar Kasabs and Pinjaras still worship Hindu gods and have idols hid in their houses. Almost all Musalmans attend public prayers on the Ramzan and Bakar-id festivals. Almost all the upper classes of Musalmans are careful to give free alms to the poor. They pray in the morning and read the Kuran for an hour or two and on Friday meet together to pray in the Jama mosque.

Except Bagbans or fruiterers, Kanjars or poulterers, Kasabs or butchers, Pinjaras or cotton-teasers, Takaras or masons, and Tambolis or betel-sellers, no Musalman lets his woman appear in public. Proprietors and other upper class Musalmans never allow their women to go out but the women of some Deccan Muhammedans go out at night and sometimes during the day covering the body except the face and the feet with a large white sheet. When Bohora women go out they shroud their figures in a dark cloak with gauze eye openings. Bagban, Kanjar, Kasab, Pinjara, Takara and Tambat women appear in public in the same dress they wear at home. Almost all Musalmans employ the Kazi to register their marriage. The Kazis, some of whom as in Ahmadnagar, Sangamner, Nevasa and other large towns are hereditary and hold inam lands but most elective, are paid in cash by their employers. They are chosen by the general body of Musalmans.

The thirty-five classes of the Musalman population of Ahmadnagar may be brought under two divisions, four main classes and thirteen minor classes who inter-marry and together form one body; and eighteen small communities most of which have some peculiar or irregular customs and all of which are distinct in matters of marriage. The main body of Musalmans, who inter-marry and differ little in looks, customs or dress, besides the four main classes of Moghals, Pathans, Shaikhs and Syeds include thirteen minor classes of whom two, viz., Attars or perfumers and Dalals or brokers are traders, eight Barutgars or firework-makers, Darjis or tailors, Gonivalas or grain-sellers, Kalaigars or tinners, Nalbands or farriers, Patvegars or tassel-twisters, Rangrezes or dyers, and Warraks or paper-makers are crafts-men; and three Bhistis or water-carriers, Naikvaris or messengers and Tirgars or arrow-makers are servants. Of the eighteen communities who inter-marry only among themselves, and most of whom are marked by peculiar customs, three strangers Bohoras and Memans Gujarat and Cutch traders, and Gaokasabs or beef-butchers. The remaining fifteen are chiefly of local Hindu or Deccan origin. They are, Bagban fruiterers, Bakarkasab mutton-butchers, Bhatyara cooks, Dhobi washermen, Gaundi brick-layers, Ghair-Mahadis or Anti-Mahadis, Hajam barbers, Jhara dust-sifters, Kanjar poulterers, Momin weavers, Pinjara cotton-teasers, Saikalgar knife-grinders, Sutar carpenters, Takara stone-masons and Tamboli betel-sellers.

Of the four leading Musalman classes Moghals, Pathans, Shaikhs and Syeds, the Moghals and Pathans are small bodies and the Shaikhs and Syeds are found in large numbers throughout the district.

Moghals: Moghals are found in small numbers in some of the larger towns. They claim descent from the Moghal conquerors of the Deccan in the early part of the seventeenth century. In appearance they do not differ from Shaikhs. The men take mirza before their name and the women add bibi or begam to theirs. They do not differ from Syeds and Shaikhs in dress, manners or customs.

Pathans: Pathans are found all over the district. They claim descent from the Afghan mercenaries and military leaders who conquered or took service in the Deccan. They are generally tall, well-made and dark or olive-skinned. The men add khan to their names and the women bibi. Their manners and customs do not differ from those of Shaikhs and other leading classes and they generally give and take daughters from Shaikhs and other regular classes.

Shaikhs: Shaikhs claim descent from the three leading Kuraish families, the Siddikis who claim descent from Abu Bakar Siddik, the Farukis from Umar-al-Faruk, and the Abbasis from Abbas, one of the Prophet's nine uncles. The bulk of the Shaikhs are chiefly, if not entirely, the representatives of local Hindu converts. The men take Shaikh or Muhammad before their names, and the women add bibi to theirs. They do not differ in their look, dress or manners from Syeds.

Syeds: Syeds, or elders, claim descent from Fatima the daughter and Ali the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. They are said to have settled as mercenaries and religious teachers chiefly during the time of the Ahmadnagar kings (1490-1636). The men take mir or syed before or shah after their names, and the women add bibi to theirs. They are generally tall, strong, well-made and fair.

The thirteen classes who form part of the main or regular Musalman community are:

Attars: Attars, or perfumers, are found in small numbers in Ahmadnagar city and in some of the larger towns. They are either tall or of middle height, thin and fair. In social matters they form a separate community under an elective head-man, and settle social disputes according to the votes of the majority of the members of the community and with the consent of the head-man. They do not differ from the main classes of Musalmans in manners or customs, and are said to be religious and careful to say their prayers.

Barutgars: Barutgars, or firework-makers, are found in small numbers in all the larger towns of the district. They are either tall or of middle height, thin and dark or olive-skinned. They do not form a separate community nor differ in manners and customs from the main classes of Musalmans with whom they marry. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi School but few of them are religious or careful to say their prayers.

Darjis: Darjis, or tailors, are found in small numbers and are a branch of Shaikhs. Except that they make their living as tailors, they differ in no way from other Shaikhs.

Goniwalas: Goniwalas, or grain-sellers, who like Darjis, do not differ in any way from Shaikhs, are found only in Ahmadnagar from which they carry grain on bullock-back over the whole district.

Kalaigars: Kalaigars, or tin-smiths, who are found in large numbers in Ahmadnagar and in other large towns, are said to represent Hindus of the same class converted by Aurangzeb (1658-1707). They call themselves Shaikhs, and neither men nor women differ from Shaikhs in looks, dress or manners. They have a well-managed union with an elective head-man or chaudhari, who, with the consent of the majority of the members, fines any one who breaks their caste-rules. They keep no Hindu customs and do not differ from regular Musalmans with whom they inter-marry. They are Hanafi Sunnis in religion and many of them are religious and careful to say their prayers.

Naikvaris: Naikvaris, or messengers, are found in large numbers over the whole district. Apparently to account for the naik in their names, their own story represents Maratha-Kunbis converted to Islam by Haidar Naik of Mysore (1764-1782). They speak Hindustani with a mixture of Marathi. They are like Marathas in features, strong, muscular and dark or sallow-skinned. They are Sunnis except a few who are Wahabis. Most of them still follow some Hindu customs, keeping Holi in March-April and Divali in October-November. In Ahmadnagar city they are too few to form a separate community, but in Sangamner and other towns and villages they have a separate council of their elders who punish breaches of caste-rules with fines which generally take the form of caste-dinners.

Nalbands: Nalbands, or ferriers, are found in considerable numbers in almost all large towns and villages. According to their own account they have come from what was once the Nizam's country. They do not differ from Kalaigars in look, dress, manners or customs.

Patvegars: Patvegars, or tassel-twisters, who are a small class, like Kalaigars and others, do not differ from Shaikhs in looks, dress, manners or customs.

Rangrezes: Rangrezes, or dyers, found in small numbers like the Patvegars call themselves Shaikhs, and do not differ from Shaikhs in looks, dress and manners.

Tirgars: Tirgars, or arrow-makers, who do not differ in any respect from Shaikhs, are found in a very small number only at Ahmadnagar. They got their name from their old trade of making bows and arrows for native troops.

Warraks: Warraks, or paper-makers, are found in small numbers. Like many other classes they are a branch of Shaikhs and do not differ from them in looks or dress. They marry with any of the regular classes and do not differ from them in manners and customs.

The eighteen distinct and irregular communities are:

Bagbans: Bagbans, or fruiterers, are found in considerable numbers throughout the district. They are said to have come from different parts of the Deccan and to have been converted by Aurangzeb. They are tall or of middle height, well-made and dark or olive-skinned. They form a separate community and marry only among themselves. They have strong Hindu leanings, eschew beef and keep Hindu festivals. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, they seldom pray or keep Musalman customs. They respect and obey the kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Bakarkasabs: Bakarkasabs, or mutton butchers, are found all over the district. They are said to represent Lad converts made by the emperor Aurangzeb. They have come from different parts of the Deccan. Like other Deccan Musalmans they are either tall or of middle height and dark or olive-skinned. They form a separate community and marry only among themselves. They have strong Hindu leanings, eschew beef and consider the touch of a beef butcher impure. They keep Hindu festivals and worship Hindu gods. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name few are religious or careful to say their prayers. They respect the regular kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Bhatyaras: Bhatyaras, or cooks, are found in small numbers in Ahmadnagar city. They are said to have come from Delhi about a hundred years ago, and to have married with low class Deccan Musalmans from whom they do not now differ in looks, dress or manners. They have no separate union, but marry either among themselves or take wives from other low class Musalman families. They respect and obey the regular kazi, and employ him to register their marriages.

Bohoras: Bohoras, probably from the Gujarati vohoravu to trade also known as Daudis from a pontiff of that name, are found in small numbers chiefly at Ahmadnagar. They are said to have settled in the district soon after the beginning of British rule. Their home-tongue is Gujarati, and with others they speak Hindustani and Marathi. They are generally active and well-made, but are wanting in strength and robustness. Their features are regular and clear-cut, the skin olive and the expression gentle and shrewd. They form a well-organized body and have a strong class-feeling. They show much respect to their chief Mullah Saheb. They are regular in paying his dues and conform to all the rules of their religion. They marry among themselves only, and though they do not associate with other Musalmans, they differ little from them in manners and customs.

Gaokasabs: Gaokasabs, or beef butchers, are found in small numbers in the city of Ahmadnagar. They are said to be descended from Abyssinian slaves in the service of Haidar Ali of Mysore, who came to Ahmadnagar with General Wellesley's army in 1803 and settled in the cantonments. They are tall, strong, well-made and dark. They marry among themselves only and form a distinct class. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, few are religious or careful to say their prayers. Their manners and customs do not differ from those of regular Musalmans and like them they obey and respect the regular kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Gaundis: Gaundis, or brick-layers, are found in small numbers all over the district. They are said to have come from Bijapur in the sixteenth century. Like other Deccan Musalmans they are either tall or of middle height and dark or olive-skinned. They form a separate community marrying only among themselves. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and of late years have become very religious, building mosques, and praying regularly.

Ghair Mahadis: Ghair Mahadis, or anti-Mahadis, are found in Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad and a few in Sholapur. In Ahmadnagar they used to form a separate union and lived in a small walled place called daira or circle two miles east of Nagar city. This daira is called after Syed Ahmad otherwise called Shah Sharif. Maloji, the grand-father of Shivaji, prayed for a child at Shah Sharif's tomb and when he got children, he named his first son Shahaji and his second Sharifji in honour of his patron saint Shah Sharif, and built a reservoir near the tomb which still remains. Besides the Ahmadnagar Daira Ghair Mahadis have a daira at Chichodi about fifteen miles south-east of Ahmadnagar. Some have hereditary lands which they say were originally granted by Burhan Nizam Shah (1508-1553). In social matters they have a distinct organization under a head-man named murshid or instructor who registers marriages and punishes breaches of class-rules by making the offender beg pardon in public by repeating the words Toba istighfar, that is, Sorrow and Pardon. They teach their children a little Hindustani and Marathi.

Hajams: Hajams, or barbers, are found in small numbers in the city of Ahmadnagar. They are fresh settlers from the North-West Provinces. The men are thin, tall and olive-skinned. They form a separate community and marry among themselves only. Their manners and customs do not differ from those of other Musalmans. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are seldom religious or careful to say their prayers.

Jharas: Jharas, or dust-sifters, are found in small numbers all over the district. They are descended from Hindu converts and are said to have come from different parts of the Deccan. They form a separate community and marry only among themselves. They have no special customs. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, but are seldom religious or careful to say their prayers. They respect and obey the regular kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Kanjars: Kanjars, or poulterers, are found in Bhingar about two miles north-east of Ahmadnagar and in Sangamner and other large towns. They are said to represent local converts from the tribe of Hindu Pardhis or bird-catchers. They are black or sallow-skinned with high cheek-bones, thick lips and flat or high noses. They speak Hindustani with a mixture of Marathi. They are Musalmans in little more than in name and never say their prayers. They form a separate community with a head-man of their own. They marry among themselves only and hold a low social position.

Manyars: Manyars, or bangle-sellers, are found in small numbers over the whole of the district. They are said to be partly incomers from Aurangabad and partly to represent local converts from the Kasar caste. They are Hanafi Sunnis but are not careful to say their prayers. They form a separate community with an elective head-man who has power to punish breaches of caste-rules by fining the offender or turning him out. The fines go to meet the wants of the poor or the expenses of the nearest mosque. They marry among themselves only.

Memans: Memans, properly Momins or believers, are found in small numbers in Nagar city. They have come to Ahmadnagar from Bombay within the last sixty years. They are converted Cutchis and Lohanas of Cutch and Kathiawad. They speak Cutchi at home and Hindustani abroad. They are tall, strong, robust and fair. In religion they do not form a separate community and have no special customs. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and are religious and careful to say their prayers. They obey and respect the kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Momins: Momins, or hand-loom weavers, are found in small numbers in Ahmadnagar, Nevasa and Sangamner. Some have come from northern India and others from Hyderabad and Aurangabad. They are Hanafi Sunnis and are fairly religious. They form a separate social community but marry with other Musalmans.

Pinjaras: Pinjaras, or cotton-cleaners, are found all over the district in small numbers. They are said to represent Hindu converts. In looks and dress they do not differ from other Deccan Musalmans. They respect and obey the kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Saikalgars: Saikalgars, or armourers, are found in small numbers all over the district. They are said to represent Ghisadi Hindus converted by Aurangzeb. They are like other Deccan classes in looks and in dress. They have no separate union. They respect and obey the regular kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Sutars: Sutars, or carpenters, are found in small numbers in some of the larger towns. They are said to represent Hindu converts and to have come from different parts of the Deccan. They look and dress like other Deccan Musalmans. They form a separate community and marry among themselves only. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but are seldom religious or careful to say their prayers. They respect and obey the kazi and employ him to register their marriages. Their manners and customs do not differ from those of the regular Musalmans.

Takaras: Takaras, or stone masons and quarry-men, are found in considerable numbers all over the district. They are said to represent Sholapur Dhondphodas. In looks and dress they do not differ from other Deccan Musalmans. They have a union which settles social disputes at caste-meetings. They marry among themselves only, and their manners and customs do not differ from those of other Musalmans. They respect and obey the kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Tambolis: Tambolis, or betel-leaf sellers, are found in considerable numbers all over the district. They are said to represent mixed Hindus converted by Aurangzeb, and are said to have come from different parts of the Deccan. They are either tall or of middle height and are dark or olive-skinned. They form a separate community and marry only among themselves. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, but few are religious or careful to say their prayers. They do not send their boys to school or take to new pursuits.

Christians: Christians [From materials supplied by the Rev. L. Bissell, D. D. of the American Marath Mission and the Rev. J. Taylor of the Society for Propagating the Gospel.] are found in small numbers all over the district. They are Hindu and Musalman converts to Christianity. They belong to the American Marathi Mission and the Mission of the English Church Society for Propagating the Gospel. The Ahmadnagar branch of the American Marathi Mission, the first Protestant Christian mission in the district, was opened in 1831. Among the lay-men who aided the establishment of the Ahmadnagar branch, the chief was Dr. Graham then in medical charge of the Ahmadnagar military hospital, who procured for the mission the free use of the mansion known as Tewri Bagh. Shortly afterwards, with the munificent aid of Sir John Malcolm and other European gentlemen, under Dr. Graham's care, the mission opened a charitable dispensary called the Poor Asylum. From the first the mission opened boys' and girls' boarding schools for Hindu and Christian children. Besides the boarding schools the mission opened several schools in the district. In 1866, the school was closed and the boys were sent to the Christian Vernacular Society's normal school which was opened in the same year. In 1883 Ahmadnagar had two American mission churches, one under a European missionary and the other under a native pastor. Besides these two churches every large Christian settlement had its church under a native pastor.

The Ahmadnagar Mission of the Church of England Society for Propagating the Gospel was started in 1873, on the suggestion of the Reverend W. Boswell. In 1883 the adherents of the mission numbered about 3,500 scattered over 150 villages. The mission had forty schools, each with ten to fifteen boys and a few girls.

The followers of the American Marathi Mission are found all over the district except in the south-west. Every village has one or more resident families. Except a few Brahmans, Prabhus, Kunbis, Vanjaris and Musalmans, most of them were Mhars and Mangs. They speak Marathi both at home and abroad. Most of the converts have kept their names and surnames; but in naming their children they generally prefer Christian to Hindu names. Persons bearing the same surname inter-marry; but close relationship is a bar to marriage.

The converts of the Mission of the Society for Propagating the Gospel are found in Kopargaon, Ahmadnagar, Nevasa, Rahuri, Sangamner and Shevgaon. They do not differ much in speech, food or dress from the converts of the American Marathi Mission. Except a few Brahmans and Kunbis most of them are Mhars and Mangs.

Roman Catholics are found in very small numbers especially at Ahmadnagar. Some of them are local converts and others are emigrants from Goa. The local converts most of whom were drawn by the Jesuit missionaries from the Mission of the Society for Propagating Gospel, follow the ritual of the Catholic Church, but in customs and other important particulars do not differ from the converts of the Mission of the Society for Propagating the Gospel. The Goans have come into the district in search of employment and are mostly domestic servants of Europeans. They do not differ in any respect from their Goa brethren.

Parsis : Parsis are found chiefly at Ahmadnagar. They are emigrants from Bombay and Surat. Their home-tongue is Gujarati. Out-of-doors they speak Marathi and English. They have priests of their own. They have three Towers of Silence, one of them in use, and a Fire Temple.

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