The Gazetteers Department

The sections on Mediaeval Period onwards are contributed by Dr. B, G. Kunte, M.A., Ph.D. (Economics), Ph.D. (History), Executive Editor and Secretary.]

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS HAVE RECENTLY BEEN CARRIED ON AT KUNDINPUR in the Amravati district and Pavnar in the Wardha district, but their detailed reports have not yet been published. From short accounts of these excavations that have appeared in the press, we get some idea of the earliest habitations in Vidarbha. They are of the chalcolithic period. It appears, however, that the Wainganga region was occupied in the Early stone Age; though stratigraphic evidence is still lacking, tools of trap rock such as cleavers, scrapers and hand-axes have been found in the Wainganga valley. From there the palaeolithic culture seems to have spread to other parts of Vidarbha. Such stone age implements as the perforated hammer stones have been found at Kundinpur.

The earliest period known from excavations at Kundinpur and Pavnar is the Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age. It is evidenced by refined microliths in association with orange coloured pottery, painted with red or black bands. The characteristic features of this period as brought to light in the excavations in Vidarbha and other parts of Maharashtra such as Nasik, Nevasa and other places may be described as follows [Summarised from H. D. Sankalia's Indian Archaeology Today, p. 88 f.]:—

"The earliest habitations of the people of this period must have been in the river valleys. The thick forests which must have covered them were first cut down with their stone and copper tools. The elevated sites on the banks of the rivers were chosen for settlements. The huts were small, measuring about 10 ft. by 9 ft. and were either rectangular or round. They were constructed with wooden posts, the walls being of mud and the roof of bamboo matting, dry leaves, etc., covered with a layer of mud. The houses were furnished with large and small storage jars, bowls (vatis) and vessels (Iotas) with long spouts. Their red surface was painted in black with geometric designs or figures of animals. They wore garments of cotton and probably also of silk. For their ornaments they used beads of semi-precious stones, crystal', terracotta and rarely of copper and even of gold. Silver was unknown. Bangles were made of copper, burnt clay or bones, rarely of ivory.

For weapons they used products of chalcedony blade industry, flat copper axes and slings with round balls of various sizes. Their tools were made of dolerite and copper. They pounded their grains with plano-convex rubber stones. Besides, they ate beef, mutton, pork, venison and river fish. Hunting and animal grazing formed their main occupations.

They buried their dead within the house floor or outside. The children were buried in wide-mouthed jars. The adults were buried full length in a large jar; if the latter was found to be short, another pot was used for covering the knees. Sometimes the body lying in an extended position was covered by no less than five pots. The dead were provided with bowls, spouted vessels and necklaces of copper and carnelian. Economically these people were in a pastoral-cum-hunting-cum-agricultural stage and lived in small villages on river-banks. They still used stone for various purposes, the use of copper being rare. This kind of life continued until it was changed by a fresh influx of people with knowledge of iron, agriculture and town-planning, in about the fourth century A. D.

Who these people were is not definitely known, but one plausible conjecture is that they belonged to some of the Aryan tribes. This theory, however, needs confirmation by stronger evidence."

The above gleanings are from excavations at such places as Nasik, Jorwe, Kundinpur and Pavnar. The duration of this early Bronze Age is surmised by archaeologists to be from 1500—1000 B. C. to 500 B. C.

In Nagpur, Bhandara, and Chandrapur districts of Vidarbha we have vestiges of the megalithic culture in the form of dolmens and other sepulchral monuments. In the Bhandara district they are noticed at Pimpalgaon, Tilota, Khairi and Brahmi. Some of these were opened first by Pearson and then by Hislop, but their detailed reports are not available. They are yet to be excavated and studied scientifically. Hislop described them as follows:—

" They are found chiefly as barrows surrounded by a circle of stones and as stone boxes which when complete are styled kistavens, and when open on one side, cromlechs. The kistavens, if not previously disturbed, have been found to contain stone coffins and urns."

"These monuments, though every one of them is some kind of a tomb, are not primary burials. Almost all are secondary burials, that is, the bodies after death were left exposed to beasts and weather and it was only later that the remains that were left were collected together and were buried in a pot (called urn) or a chest-like stone (rectangular cist), but if above ground and in the shape of a table with one huge capstone covering the three or more up-right stones it was called "a dolmen" or " dolmenoid cist", or a legged oblong vessel with a separate lid and lags (called sarcophagus) along with most important possessions of the dead-iron weapons and tools, shell ornaments, semi-precious beads, pots of various shape and even horse-bits and occasionally coins.... The fact that pits were prepared for secondary burials and then enclosed by large slabs of stones and the whole finally surrounded by a circle of stones implies a fairly well established and prosperous social organisation. [Loc. cit.]"

As for the identity of these megalith builders, Haimendorf suggested that they were a people of mediterranean stock who probably came to the west coast by sea, entered south India in about 500 B. C. and spread northwards subduing the earlier neolithic and microlithic people who were in a semi-nomadic, food-gathering stage of culture. Further, since the distribution of south Indian megaliths was almost coterminous with that of the Dravidian languages, it is this people who should have introduced the Dravidian language (or languages) in the region. And it is their kings—the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas—to whom the Ashokan edicts were addressed. Thus the earliest Tamil should go back to about 500 B.C. [Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts, Vol. V.].

These speculations, though interesting, have not yet been accepted by scholars; for the chalcolithic people were not ignorant of the practice of burying the dead in pits or pots and could boast of a settled life in which, besides polished stones, axes, spouted and other pots played an important part and the people had some idea of life after death. Credit must, however, be given to these megalithic people for introducing iron and perhaps irrigation also.

We shall next see what light is thrown on this period by literary sources. According to literary tradition, when the Aryans penetrated to the Deccan, the whole region was covered by a thick jungle, which extended southward from central India. Agastya was the first Aryan who crossed the Vindhya and fixed his residence on the bank of the Godavari. This memorable event is corroborated by the mythological story which represents Vindhya as bending before his guru Agastya when the latter approached him. The sage asked the mountain to remain in that position until he returned from the south, which he never did. Agastya was followed by several other sages who established their hermitages in the different regions of the south. The cluster of hermitages on the bank of the Godavari was called Janasthana to distinguish it from the surrounding forest country. The region to the south of the Godavari was inhabited by the aborigines, who are called Rakshasas in the Ramayana. The sages living in the Janasthana were constantly harassed by these Rakshasas. " These shapeless and ill-looking monsters testify to their abominable character by various cruel and terrific displays. They implicate the hermits in impure practices and perform great outrages. Changing their shapes and hiding in thickets adjoining the hermitages, these frightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees; they cast away their sacrificial ladles and vessels; they pollute cooked oblations and utterly defile the offerings with blood. These faithless creatures inject frightful sounds into the ears of the faithful and austere hermits. At the time of the sacrifices they snatch away the jars, the flowers and the sacred grass of these sober-minded men."

We learn from the Ramayana that Rama, accompanied by his brother Lakshmana and wife Sita, met Agastya near the Godavari. The hermitage of the sage is, by tradition, located at Akola in Ahmadnagar district, but from the Uttararamacharita of Bhavabhuti it appears to have been situated on the Murala (modern Mula), which was then probably a direct tributary of the Godavari. Agastya presented Rama with a bow and two quivers and advised him to settle down at a place called Panchavati from the five great Banyan trees which grew there. Even now there are some caves near Panchavati on the Godavari, which go by the name of Sita-gumpha or Sita's cave, and which have in a large niche in the back wall the images of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita. Here Rama is said to have lived for some time and killed many Rakshasas who were harassing the sages. From here Sita was abducted by the demon king Ravana, which ultimately led to the invasion of Lanka by Rama with the help of the monkey hosts.

Janasthana and Panchavati were situated on the fringe of the great forest called Dandakaranya, the story of which is narrated in the Uttarakanda of the Ramayana. We are told that a large country was founded north of the Godavari by Vidarbha, the son of Rishabhadeva. His capital was Kundinpura in the Amravati district. Agastya married a princess of this country, Lopamudra by name. Agastya is the seer of some hymns of the Rigveda. His wife Lopamudra is mentioned in Rigveda I, 179, 4. The Ramayana states that Danda or Dandaka, the son of Ikshvaku and grandson of Manu, ruled over the country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains with his capital at Madhu-manta. He led a voluptuous life and once upon a time he violated the daughter of the sage Bhargava. The sage then cursed the king that his whole kingdom would be devastated by a terrible dust-storm. The whole country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains, extending over a thousand yojanas, was consequently turned into a great forest, which since then came to be known as Dandakaranya. It was in this forest that the Shudra ascetic Shambuka was practising penance. According to the notions of those days, this was an irreligious act and so Rama beheaded him and revived the life of a Brahmana boy, who had died prematurely. The place where Shambuka was beheaded is still shown on the hill of Ramtek, about 28 miles from Nagpur [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.). p. 19.]. In the Uttararamacharita, Bhavabhuti tells us that the Dandaka forest extended southward from this place up to Janasthana on the Godavari.

The central part of the Deccan was divided into several countries known by different names. The region on the north of the Godavari, now included in the Aurangabad district was known by the name of Mulaka. This country together with its capital Pratishthana (modern Paithan) is mentioned in Pali literature. Pratishthana later became the capital of the Satavahanas. It is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions such as those at Pitalkhora and also by Ptolemy and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. As it lay on the trade route from Tagara in the south to Ujjayani in the north and Shurparaka (Sopara in the Thana district) in the west, it was a flourishing city. To the north of Mulaka lay the country of Rishika, now called Khandesh. Along the southern bank of the Godavari extended the Country of Ashmaka (Pali, Assaka), which comprised the modern Ahmadnagar and Bid districts. Later, this region came to be included in the country of Kuntala, which extended far to the south. It comprised what is known as the Southern Maratha Country as well as Northern Karnataka. In an inscriptional passage the upper valley of the Krishna is said to be included in the Kuntala country [p. Ind.,Vol .XII,p. 153.]. In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th century A.D.) Pratishthana on the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharashtra. The Aihole inscription (7th cen. A.D.) speaks of three Maharashtras, which probably included Vidarbha, Western Maharashtra and Kuntala. In later times Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kanarese country now included in the Mysore State. It is described as a seven and half lakh province. The Early Chalukyas of Badami and the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntaleshvaras or lords of Kuntala. In early times, however, the districts of Kolhapur Satara, Sholapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid, which are now Marathi-speaking were included in Kuntala. As we shall see later, the Early Rashtrakutas, who were ruling over this territory, were known as Kuntaleshvaras (Lords of Kuntala).

Later we find that all this country was included in the Empire cf Ashoka. An inscription issued by the Dharmamahamatra of Ashoka has been found at Devtek in the Chandrapur district. It was issued in the fourteenth regnal year of Ashoka and interdicts the capture and killing of animals [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 126 f.]. Again, the fifth and thirteenth rock-edicts of Ashoka mention the Rashtrika-Petenikas and the Bhoja-Petenikas. According to many scholars, the Petenikas were inhabitants of Pratishthana in the Aurangabad district. The Rashtrikas ruled as Maharathis and the Bhojas held Vidarbha. It seems that the full set of fourteen rock edicts of Ashoka was engraved at Sopara (ancient Shurparaka, the capital of Konkan) in the Thana District. One of these edicts was found several years ago and recently a fragment of Edict X has been discovered in its vicinity.

According to the Buddhist Chronicles Dipavamsha and Maha-vamsha of Ceylon, the third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the presidentship of Moggaliputta Tissa in the seventeenth regnal year of Ashoka. After the Council was over, Tissa sent missionaries to different countries for the preaching of Buddhism. Of these Dharmarakshita was sent to Aparanta (Konkan) and Mahadharmarakshita to Maharashtra. From the Mahavamsha we learn that Mahadharmarakshita propagated Buddhism in Maharashtra by narrating to the people the story of the Narada-Kassapa Jataka. As a result of this, eighty-four thousand were converted to Buddhism and thirteen thousand became monks. There is much exaggeration in this account, but there is no doubt that Buddhism was first introduced in Maharashtra in the reign of Ashoka. This led to the excavation of caves in the different parts of Maharashtra. Some of these were excavated at Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Ajanta and other places. Pital-khora and Ajanta lay on the trade-routes to Ujjayini in the north and Shurparaka in the west and so attained great prosperity [Ancient India (Arch, Deptt.), No. 15, p. 66 f.]. Recently in the excavations carried out by the Nagpur University and the Archaeological Department of the Central Government at Pauni in this district the remains of the pre-Ashokan period such as pottery and punch-marked coins have been brought to notice. There was a large stupa near the tank Balasamudra outside the city wall on which the modern temple of Jagannatha now stands. It was enlarged in the Shunga age and was decorated with a railing and gateways. Pauni seems to have been an important centre of Buddhism which lay on the high road from the north to the south.

After the overthrow of the Maurya dynasty in circa 184 B.C. the imperial throne in Pataliputra was occupied by Senapati Pushya-mitra, the founder of the Shunga dynasty. His son Agnimitra was appointed Viceroy of Malwa and ruled from Vidisha, modern Besnagar, a small village near Bhilsa. Vidarbha, which had seceded from the Maurya Empire during the reign of one of the weak successors of Ashoka, was then ruled by Yajnasena. He imprisoned his cousin Madhavasena, who was a rival claimant for the throne. The sister of Madhavasena escaped to Malwa and got admission to the royal harem as a hand-maid to the queen Dharini under the name of Malavika. Agnimitra. who had espoused the cause of Madhavasena and had sent an army against the king of Vidarbha, fell in love with Malavika and married her. The Malava army defeated the king of Vidarbha and released Madhavasena. Agnimitra then divided the country of Vidarbha between the two cousins, each ruling on one side of the Varada (modern Wardha). The story of Malavika forms the plot of the Sanskrit play Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa.

Kalidasa does not state to what royal family Yajnasena and Madhavasena belonged and these names do not occur anywhere else. Still, it is possible to conjecture that they may have been feudatories of the Satavahanas, who rose to power in the Deccan soon after the death of Ashoka. From the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Bhuvaneshvara we learn that Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, who was a contemporary of Pushyamitra, sent an army to the western region, not minding Satakarni. The latter evidently belonged to the Satavahana dynasty as the name occurs often in that family. Kharavela's army is said to have penetrated to the river Kanhabenna and struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rishika. The Kanhabenna is evidently the river Kanhan, which flows about 10 miles from Nagpur and not the river Krishna as supposed by some scholars; for the latter flows not west but south-west of Udayagiri [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 45 f.]. Kharavela's army thus invaded Vidarbha. He knew that as the ruler of Vidarbha was a feudatory of king Satakarni, the latter would rush to his aid. When Vidarbha was thus invaded, the people of Rishika (Khandesh), which bordered Vidarbha on the west, were naturally terror-stricken. No actual engagement seems, however, to have taken place and the army returned to Kalinga perhaps at the approach of the Satavahana forces.

Satakarni belonged to the Satavahana family. This family derived its name from king Satavahana, who rose to power soon after the death of Ashoka and had his capital at Pratisthana. It received support from the local rulers called Maharathis, with whom it formed matrimonial alliances. This family is called Andhra in the Puranas; but that it originally hailed from Western Maharashtra is indicated by its earliest inscriptions which are found in the caves at Naneghat near Junnar and at Nasik. Its earliest coins issued by its founder Satavahana have been found at Aurangabad and in Vidarbha. In later times it extended its rule to Andhra as shown by its later inscriptions and coins found in that region. The Puranas call it Andhra evidently because it was ruling in that country when the Purana account was compiled in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Though Satavahana was the founder of the family, he is not mentioned in the Puranas. The first king of the Andhra (i.e., Satavahana) dynasty mentioned in the Puranas is Simuka (Shrimukha), who is also known from a relievo statue in a cave at Naneghat. We do not know the extent of his kingdom, but it must have comprised at least the Pune, Nasik, Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad districts. When he ended his rule, his son Satakarni was a minor and so his brother Krishna ascended the throne. He has left an inscription in the cave which he got excavated for the Buddhist monks at Nasik. His Mahamatra, who is described as a Shramana of Nasik, is said to have caused it to be excavated. Krishna is described in this record as belonging to the Satavahana family. This indicates that he was not a son of Satavahana but a grandson or some lower descendant.

The next ruler of the family was Satakarni I, who also is known from the dynastic list in the Puranas and also from a relievo figure now mutilated in the aforementioned cave at Naneghat. He seems to have extended his rule over the whole of the Deccan and even carried his arms north of the Narmada. King Kharavela of Kalinga, who was his contemporary, sent an army to the west not minding Satakarni, who is probably this very ruler. When the army reached Kanhabenna, which as shown above, is probably identical with the Kanhan flowing near Nagpur, it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rishika (Khandesh). There was no clash of arms on this occasion, but two years later, Kharavela probably penetrated further west as he claims to have received submission from the Rishikas and the Bhojakas, who were probably ruling in the Deccan as feudatories of the Satavahanas [Ep. Ind., Vol. XX, p. 79.].

Satakarni performed the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices (the latter twice), which probably commemorated his important victories or supremacy in the Deccan and had political significance. He performed also several other Shrauta sacrifices such as Agnyadheya, Aploryama, Dasharatra, Trayodasharatra, Angira-satriratra, Shataratra, Gavamayana, etc., all of which were marked by munificent gifts of horses, elephants and Karshapanas. They are recorded in a large but now sadly mutilated inscription in a cave at Naneghat.

Satakarni left behind two sons, Vedishri and Shaktishri, who are mentioned in the aforementioned Naneghat inscription. It was believed for a long time that this record was incised during the minority of the former prince when his mother Naganika was acting as a regent; but this view is now shown to be erroneous. The inscription describes her as one who fasted during a whole month, who, even in her house, lived like an ascetic, who led a self-restrained life and was well acquainted with initiatory ceremonies, vows and offerings. She had evidently lost all interest in worldly life and was devoting herself to religious practices. Such a lady is hardly likely to busy herself with the governing of an extensive kingdom like that of the Satavahanas. As a matter of fact, the inscription describes Vedishri as a very brave king, who was a unique warrior on the earth and was the lord of Dakshina-patha [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 139f.].

Vedishri was followed by a number of princes who are named in the Puranas, but about whom they furnish little information except their reign-periods, which also vary in different Puranas and even in the manuscripts of the same Puranas. But one name among them is noteworthy. It is that of king Hala, the reputed author of the Gathasaptashati, a unique collection of seven hundred Prakrit verses descriptive of the social, religious and economic life of the period. Hala flourished in the first century A. D. [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 88f.].

Some years after Hala's reign Maharashtra was conquered by the Shaka Kshatrapas. Nahapana, a Shaka Kshatrapa probably appointed by the contemporary Kushana Emperor, was ruling over Konkan, Pune, Nasik and some other districts of Maharashtra as well as some portion of Central India as far north as Ajmer. Several inscriptions of his son-in-law Ushavadata (Sanskrit, Rishabhadatta) have been incised in the Pandu-lena caves near Nasik. Ushavadata was the son of Dinika and had married Dakshamitra, the daughter of Nahapana. These records in the Nasik caves describe the charities and conquests of Ushavadata, who was evidently governing Northern Maharashtra and Konkan on behalf of his father-in-law. We learn from them that Ushavadata gave away three hundred thousand cows, constructed ghats at the river Barnasa, gifted sixteen villages to gods and Brahmanas, fed a hundred thousand Brahmanas every year, got eight Brahmanas of Prabhasa or Somnath Patan married at his expense, constructed rest-houses, made gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha (Broach), Dashapura (Mandasor), Govardhana (near Nasik) and Shorparaga (Sopara in the Thana district), provided ferry-boats at the rivers Iba, Parada, Damana, Tapi, Kara-bena and Dahanuka and founded some benefactions in the village Nanangola for Brahmanas residing in Pinditakavada, Govardhana, Shorparaga and Ramatirtha. The same inscription further tells us that he marched to the north at the command of Nahapana and rescued the Uttamabhadras, who had been attacked by the Malayas (Malavas) and then proceeded to the tirtha Pushkara near Ajmer, and there bathed and gave three hundred cows and a village in charity. He got a cave excavated in the Trirashmi hill near Nasik and assigned it to the Buddhist monks. He invested large sums of Karshapanas with the trade-guilds at Govardhana and assigned the yearly interest on them for the maintenance and well-being of the monks living in the cave exacavated by him [Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, p. 82 f.]. In another inscription in the cave-temple at Karla he is said to have assigned the village of Karajika for the maintenance of the Bhikshus living in the cave at Valuraka (Karla) [Ibid., Vol. VII, p. 57 f.]. Another inscription at Nasik records the gifts made by his wife Dakshamitra. In an inscription at Junnar Ayama, the Amatya of Nahapana, has recorded his gifts of a mandapa and a cistern evidently for the benefit of the monks living there. These inscriptions range in dates from the year 41 to 46, which are usually referred to the Shaka era. Nahapana, therefore, flourished in the first quarter of the second century A. D.

Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription was recently discovered at Pavni in the Bhandara district [Mirashi,StudiesinIndology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It records the erection of a Chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Sata-vahanas had, therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha in this period. They seem to have repaired to their capital Pratishthana where they continued to abide, waiting for favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka invaders.

Later, Gautamiputra Satakarni retrieved the fortunes of his family. He made a daring dash into Vidarbha and occupied Bena-kata or the Wainganga district. Thereafter, he invaded Western Maharashtra and defeated Nahapana somewhere in the Nasik district. This is shown by his inscription in one of the Nasik caves wherein he is called Benakataka-svami or the lord of Bena-kata (Wainganga district). He next extended his rule to a large part of the peninsula, as his chargers are said to have drunk the water of the three oceans. The following provinces are specifically mentioned as comprised in his dominion: Rishika (Khandesh), Ashmaka (Ahmadnagar and Bid districts), Akara and Avanti (Eastern and Western Malva), Suratha (Kathiawad), and Aparanta (Konkan). That his empire extended much further is shown by the description that the mountains Setagiri (Nagarjunakonda), Shristana (in the Karnul district) and Mahendra (between the Godavari and the Krishna) were situated in his kingdom.

After defeating Nahapana, Gautamiputra called back his silver coins and restruck them. The hoard discovered at Jogaltembhi in the Nasik district contained more than 10,000 silver coins so restruck. He himself issued a large number of potin coins with the figure of an elephant with uplifted trunk on the obverse and the Ujjain symbol on the reverse [Mirashi, Indologi, Studies in, Vol. Ill, p. 38 f.]. In the hoard of potin coins found at Tarhala in the Akola district of Vidarbha, out of nearly 1,200 coins as many as 575 were of Gautamiputra.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vasishthi-putra Pulumavi, who also ruled over a large kingdom, but seems to have lost some northern provinces such as Akaravanti (Malva), and Surashtra (Kathiawad) to the Kshatrapas. He is mentioned by Ptolemy as ruling at Pratishthana. He was succeeded by his brother Vasishthiputra Satakarni, who married a daughter of the Shaka Kshatrapa Rudradaman I. Among his successors the most noteworthy was Yajnashri Satakarni, whose inscriptions and coins have been found over a large area. They show that he ruled over a large kingdom extending from Konkan in the west to Andhradesha in the east. He issued among other types the ship-type lead coins indicative of his rule over the maritime province of the Coromandel coast [Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 17 f.].

Within fifty years after Yajnashri Satakarni the rule of the Satavahanas came to an end. The Satavahanas were liberal patrons of learning and religion. As stated above, the early kings of the family performed Vedic sacrifices and lavished gifts on the Brahmanas, Krishna, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulumavi and Yajnashri Satakarni excavated caves and donated villages to provide for the maintenance, clothing and medicine of the Buddhist monks. Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in Maharashtra. Several caves were excavated for the worship and residence of the Buddhist monks at Bhaja, Kondane, Karhad, Bedsa, Karla, Nasik, Junnar and Ajanta during the rule of the Sata-vahanas. The oldest of them is a small vihara excavated at Bhaja. It has no pillars in the hall; the principal ornaments are the Dagoba, the Chaitya-arch and the rail-pattern. There are stone beds in the cells, but no shrine or image of the Buddha. Many of the caves were excavated by private individuals. An inscription in Cave IV at Pitalkhora, for instance, states that it was excavated by Krishna, the son of Samasa of Dhenukakata [Ancient India, No. 15, p. 69 f.]. Dhenukakata is mentioned in some other cave inscriptions also and is probably identical with Dahanu in the Thana district. The caves such as those at Pitalkhora which were excavated in the Satavahana period were decorated with various kinds of sculptures such as those of elephants, Yakshas, dvarapalas, Gaja-Lakshmi, etc. The earliest caves at Ajanta also belong to the Satavahana period. Two of them, viz., caves IX and X being Chaityas and two other—Caves XII and XIII—Viharas. The Chaitya caves contain beautiful paintings.

The Satavahanas extended liberal patronage to Prakrit literature. According to a tradition recorded by Rajashekhara, a Satavahana king had forbidden the use of Sanskrit in his harem. As stated before, the Gathasaptashati or Sattasai, an anthology of 700 Prakrit verses, is, by tradition, ascribed to Hala of this family. Another Prakrit work of this age was the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. It was written in the Paishachi Prakrit. The original Prakrit work is not extant now, but two Sanskrit versions of it viz., the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva and the Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra, are well known. Gunadhya was a native of Supratishtha, which, from some references in the grants of the Vakatakas, appears to have been situated in the Hinganghat tahsil of the Wardha district of Vidarbha. It may be identical with the modern village Pothra situated on a small river of the same name which joins the Wardha [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 77 f.].

During the age of the Satavahanas their capital Pratishthana attained a high level of prosperity. It was at centre of the trade-routes from Tagara (modern Ter in the Osmanabad district) in the south to Ujjayini in the north and to Nasik, Kalyan and Shurparaka (modern Sopara in the Thana district) in the west. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea mentions both tagara and Pratishthana as important trading centres in the south. From them various kinds of merchandise were taken to Barygaza (Broach). From Pratishthana a great quantity of onyx stone and from Tagara a plentiful supply of fine linen cloth and all kinds of muslins and mallow-coloured stuffs and several kinds of merchandise were carried by wagons to ports on the western coast. From Rome, on the other hand, excellent wine in large amphoras was imported. Pieces of these amphoras have been noticed in the excavations at Pavnar in the Wardha district in the strata of the Satavahana period.

About A. D. 250 the Satavahanas were supplanted by the Abhiras in Western Maharashtra and by the Vakatakas in Vidarbha. The founder of the ABhandaraa dynasty was Rajan Ish-varasena, the son of Shivadatta, who has left an inscription in Cave IX at Nasik. It records the investment of hundreds of Karsliapanas in certain guilds at Nasik for providing medicines for the sick among the Buddhist monks residing in the viharas at Trirashmi (the Pandu-lena hill near Nasik).

Ishvarasena started an era commencing in A. D. 250, which later became known as the Kalachuri-Chedi era. The earlier dates of this era come from Western Maharashtra, Gujarat, Central India and Vidarbha. Judging by the expansion of this era, Ishvarasena and his descendants seem to have ruled over a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Western Maharashtra. He was followed by nine other kings, whose names, unfortunately, do not occur in the Puranas. They only state that they ruled for 167 years. From a casket inscription discovered during excavations at Devni Mori in Gujarat, we know the name of one of these kings as Rudrasena [Mirashi, Studies in Indology,Vol. IV, p. 120 f]. His family name Kathika also has become known from the same source. Rudrasena was ruling in the year 127 of the ABhandaraa era, corresponding to A. D. 376-77. Some feudatories of the Abhiras have become known from their copper-plate grants recently discovered. They give the following genealogy: —

Maharaja Svamidasa (Year 67)

Maharaja Bhulunda (Year 107)

Maharaja Rhudradasa (Year 117).

These dates have to be referred to the ABhandaraa era and correspond to A. D. 316-17, 356-57 and 366-67, respectively. These princes who were evidently feudatories of the contemporary ABhandaraa kings were ruling from Valkha. which is probably identical with Vaghli, a small village, 6 miles north by east of Chalisgaon in Khandesh. Most of the places mentioned in these copper-plate grants can be identified in the vicinity of Vaghli [C. I. I., Vol. IV, p.;5 f].

Another feudatory family also ruling from some unknown place in Khandesh gives a long genealogy of eleven princes mentioned in an inscription in Cave XVII at Ajanta. The founder's name has been mutilated, but he seems to have ruled in circa A. D. 275—300 evidently as a feudatory of the Abhiras. The last of these princes, whose name also has been lost, submitted to the Vakataka Emperor Harishena, whose name is mentioned in the aforementioned Ajanta Cave inscription. He was probably ruling in circa A. D. 475—500 [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 120 f.].

The Abhiras were later supplanted by their feudatories, the Traikutakas in circa A. D. 415. This royal family took its name from the mountain Trikuta, which borders the Nasik district on the west. The names of three Traikutaka kings, viz., Indradatta, Dahrasena and Vyaghrasena, have become known from their inscriptions and coins found in the Nasik district and Gujarat. Dahrasena performed an Ashvamedha and was, therefore, an independent king. A copper-plate grant discovered at Pardi in the Surat district records the donation, by Dahrasena, of the village Kaniyas-Tadakasarika in the Antar-Mandali vishaya to a Brahmana residing at Kapura. This vishaya evidently comprised the territory on both the banks of the river Mindhola. The donated village is probably identical with Tarsari in the Vyara sub-division of the Surat district. Kapura still retains its ancient name and is situated three miles from Vyara. Dahrasena was succeeded by his son Vyaghrasena, who had to acknowledge the supremacy of the Vakataka king Harishena. His copper-plate grant dated in the year 241 (A. D. 490) of the ABhandaraa era was discovered at Surat and records the donation of the village Puro-hitapallika (modern Pal, two miles west of Surat). The coins of both these kings have been found in Gujarat and Maharashtra. They have the head of the king on the obverse and the Chaitya or hill with the sun to the left and the respective legend round the edge inside a circle of dots on the reverse [C. I. I., Vol. IV, p clxxix f.].

After the downfall of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas rose to power in Vidarbha. This dynasty was founded by a Brahmana named Vindhyashakti I, who is mentioned in the Puranas as well as in an inscription in cave XVI at Ajanta. His son Pravara-sena I, called Pravira in the Puranas, ousted Shishuka, the daughter's son of the Naga king of Vidisha, who was ruling at Purika at the foot of the Rikshavat (Satpuda) mountain. Pravarasena ruled over an extensive part of the Deccan. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including four Ashvamedhas and assumed the title of Samrat. According to the Puranas he ruled from the aforementioned city of Purika. He had four sons among whom his extensive empire was divided after his death. Two of them are known from inscriptions. The eldest was Gautamiputra, who predeceased him. His son Rudrasena I, held the northern part of Vidarbha and ruled from Nandivardhana near Ramtek in the Nagpur district. He had the powerful support of the king Bhavanaga of the Bharashiva family, who ruled from Padmavati in the former Gwalior State and who was his maternal grandfather. Rudrasena I, was a fervent devotee of Mahabhairava. He had, therefore, no regard for the ahimsa precepts of Ashoka. He got some portion of the aforementioned Deotek inscription of Ashoka's Dharmamahamatra chiselled off and had his own record incised in its place [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 130 f.]. The latter proclaims the construction of his dharmasthana (temple) at Chikamburi (modern Chikmara near Deotek).

Rudrasena I, was followed by his son Prithivishena I, who ruled for a long time and brought peace and prosperity to his people. During his reign this branch of the Vakatakas became matrimonially connected with the illustrious Gupta family of North India. Chandragupta II—Vikramaditya gave his daughter Prahhavatigupta in marriage to Prithivishena's son Rudrasena II. prohahly after securing the Vakataka king's aid in his war with the Western Kshatrapas of Malva and Kathiawad. Rudrasena II, died soon after accession, leaving behind two sons Divakarasena and Damodarsena alias Pravarasena II. As neither of them had come of age, Prahhavatigupta ruled as regent for the elder son Divakarasena for at least thirteen years. She seems to have been helped in the administration of the kingdom by the military and civil officers deputed by her father Chandragupta II. One of them was probably the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, who, while residing at the Vakataka capital Nandivardhana, must have often visited Ramagiri (modern Ramtek), which lay only three miles away. The theme of his excellent lyric Meghaduta seems to have suggested itself to him at this place [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 12 f.].

Prahhavatigupta has left us two copper-plate grants. The earlier of these, though discovered in distant Pune, originally belonged to the Wardha district of Vidarbha. It was issued from the then Vakataka capital Nandivardhana and records the dowager queen's grant of the village Danguna (modern Hinganghat) to a Brahmana after offering it to the feet of the Bhagawat (i.e., the god Ramachandra) on Karttika shukla dvadashi, evidently after observing a fast on the previous day of Prabhodhini Ekadashi Some of the boundary villages mentioned in the grant can still be traced in the vicinity of Hinganghat. They are described as situated in the ahara (territorial division) of Supratishtha. The latter, which is also known as the original place of residence of the Prakrit poet Gunadhya, seems to have comprised roughly the territory now included in the Hinganghat tahsil [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 6f.].

Divakarasena also seems to have died when quite young. He was succeeded by his brother Damodarasena, who, on accession, assumed the name Pravarasena of his illustrious ancestor. He had a long reign of more than thirty-two years and was known for his learning and liberality. More than a dozen grants made by him have come to light. One of them made at the instance of his mother Prahhavatigupta in the thirteenth regnal year is specially noteworthy. The plates recording the grant were issued from the feet of Ramagirisvamin (i.e., the god Ramchandra on the hill Ramagiri, modern Ramtek), and registers the grant which the queen-mother had made as on the previous occasion after observing a fast on the Prabhodhini Ekadashi [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 33 f.].

Pravarasena II, founded a new city, which he named Pravarapura and where he shifted his capital some time after his eleventh regnal year. He built there a magnificent temple of Ramachandra evidently at the instance of his mother, who was a devout worshipper of that god. Some of the sculptures used to decorate the temple have recently been discovered at Pavnar on the bank of the Dham, six miles from Wardha and have led to the identification of Pravarapura with Pavnar in the Wardha district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 272 f.].

Three copper-plate inscriptions record his grants of land in the Bhandara district. The earliest of them discovered at Sivani, records the gift of the village Brahmapuraka situated in the Bennakapara-bhoga (i.e., the Wainganga division) in the eighteenth regnal year. Brahmapuraka and the adjoining village Karanjaviraka are identical with Bahmani and Karanja situated within 6 to 8 miles from Amgaon in the Bhandara district. The boundary villages Kollapuraka, Pavarajjavataka and Vatapuraka are now known by the names of Kulpa, Parasvada and Vadgaon in the vicinity of Bamhani [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 38 f.]. Another copper-plate inscription of Pravarasena II, was founded at Tirodi in the adjoining district of Balaghat. It records the grant of the village Kosambakhanda situated in the apara-patta (western division) of Bennakata (or the Wainganga district). The donated village is identical with modern Kosamba, which lies only about 6 miles north-east of Tirodi [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 48 f.]. Another set of plates discovered in September 1967. at Pavni in the Bhandara district records the grant which Pravarasena made in the thirty-second year of his reign. It is so far the last known grant of that Vakataka king.

Pravarasena is the reputed author of the Setubandha, a Prakrit kavya in glorification of Ramchandra. According to a tradition recorded by a commentator of this work, it was composed by Kalidasa, who ascribed it to Pravarasena by the order of Vikramaditya (i.e., Chandragupta II). Pravarasena is also known as the author of some Prakrit gathas, which were later incorporated in the Gathasaptashati [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 94 f.].

Pravarasena II, was succeeded by his son Narendrasena, during whose reign Vidarbha was invaded by the Nala king Bhavadat-tavarman. The latter penetrated as far as the Nagpur district and even occupied Nandivardhana, the erstwhile capital of the Vakatakas. The Riddhapur plates record the grant which Bhavadatta had made while on a pilgrimage to Prayaga. The plates were issued later from Nandivardhana, which was evidently his capital at the time. In this emergency the Vakatakas had to shift their capital again. They moved it to Padmapura near Amgaon in the Bhandara district. A fragmentary copper-plate inscription which was proposed to be issued from Padmapura, has been discovered in the village Mohalla in the adjoining Durg district of Madhya Pradesh. This Padmapura is probably identical with the birth-place of the great Sanskrit playwright Bhavabhuti, who flourished there in a later age [lbid., Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 22 f.].

The Nalas could not retain their hold over Vidarbha for a long time. They were ousted by Narendrasena's son Prithivishena II, who carried the war into the enemy's territory, burnt and devastated their capital Pushkari, which was situated in the Bastar district. Prithivishena II, taking advantage of the decline of Gupta power, carried his arms north of the Narmada. Inscriptions of his feudatory Vyaghradeva have been found in the former Ajaygad and Jaso States in Central India [C. I. I. Vol. V, p. 89 f.].

This elder branch of the Vakataka family came to an end in circa A. D. 490. The territory under its rule was thereafter included in the dominion of the other or Vatsagulma branch, to which we may now turn.

The Vatsagulma branch was founded by Sarvasena, a younger son of Pravarasena I. Its capital was at Vatsagulma, modern Basim (Washim) in the Akola district of Vidarbha. This branch also produced some brave and learned princes. Sarvasena, the founder of this branch, is well-known as the author of the Prakrit kavya Harivijaya, which has, for its theme, the bringing down of the Parijata tree from heaven. This kavya has received unstinted praise from several eminent rhetoricians like Anandavardhana [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 114f.].

Sarvasena was followed by Vindhyasena, called Vindhyashakti II, in the Basim plates, which were issued in the 37th regnal year. The plates record the grant of a village situated in the northern marga (sub-division) of Nandikata (modern Nanded, the headquarters of the district of that name in the Marathvada division).

Vindhyasena pursued a vigorous policy and defeated the lord of Kuntala, who probably belonged to the Early Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manapura as shown below. Like his father and grand-father, he assumed the title of Dharmamaharaja. His Basim plates record the earliest known grant of the Vakatakas. The genealogical portion of this grant is written in Sanskrit and the formal portion in Prakrit. This shows how the classical language was gradually asserting itself under the patronage of the Vakatakas. All the earlier inscriptions of the Satavahanas are in Prakrit while all the later grants of the Vakatakas are in Sanskrit.

Vindhyasena was followed by his son Pravarasena II, about whom little is known. The Ajanta inscription says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. He seems to have had a short reign; for when he died, his son was only eight years old. The name of this boy prince has been lost in the Ajanta inscription. He was followed by his son Devasena, whose fragmentary copper-plate inscription is now deposited in the India Office, London [C.I.I., Vol. V; p. 101 f.]. Another record of his reign inscribed on stone, was recently discovered near Basim. It is dated in the Shaka year 380 (A. D. 458-59) and records the excavation of a tank named Sudarshana by Svamilladeva, a servant of Devasena [Dr. Mirashi Felicitation Volume, p. 372'f.].

Devasena was succeeded in A. D. 475 by his son Harishena. He carried his arms in all directions. A mutilated verse in the inscription in cave XVI at Ajanta states that he conquered Avanti (Malva) in the north, Kosala (Chhattisgarh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maratha Country) in the south [C.I.I.,Vol.V,p.xxxiif.]. He thus became the undisputed suzerain of the entire country from Malva in the north to Kuntala in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Harishena is the last known Vakataka ruler. As we have seen, he had an extensive empire in the Deccan. The causes that led to the sudden disintegration of that great empire have not been recorded in history, but the last chapter of the Dashakumara-charita of Dandin, who flourished only about 125 years after the fall of the Vakatakas, seems to have preserved a living tradition about the last period of Vakataka rule. It seems that Harishena's son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the science of politics (Dandaniti). He gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices, neglecting the affairs of the State. His subjects imitated him and led a vicious and dissolute life. Finding this a suitable opportunity, the crafty ruler of the neighbouring Ashmaka country, sent his minister's son to the court of Vidarbha. The latter ingratiated himself with the king and egged him on in his dissolute life. He also decimated his force by various means. Ultimately, when the country was thoroughly disorganised, the ruler of Ashmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (North Kanara district), to invade Vidarbha. The king of Vidarbha called all feudatories to his aid and decided to give battle to the enemy on the bank of the Varada (Wardha). But while he was fighting with the forces of the invader, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories and was killed on the battle-field. Thus ended the Vakataka kingdom after a glorious rule of two hundred and fifty years.

The Vakatakas were patrons of art and literature. In their age the Vaidarbhi riti came to be regarded as the best style of poetry and several excellent poetical works were then produced in Vidarbha. Kalidasa also adopted the same riti for his works. His Meghaduta was composed in Vidarbha as shown above. The Vakataka prince Divakarasena is credited with the composition of some Sanskrit verses, one of which is cited in the Saduktikarn-amrita of Shridharadasa. Some Prakrit kavyas were also produced in this period, two of which, viz., the Harivijaya of Sarvasena and the Setubandha of Pravarasena have been mentioned above. Three of the caves of Ajanta, viz., the two Vihara caves XVI and XVII and the Chaitya cave XIX were excavated and decorated in this period. Cave XVI was excavated by Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena, and cave XVII by a feudatory of the same, who was ruling in Khandesh. Caves XVI and XVII still contain several paintings in good condition. The artists seem to have done their work with a definite plan. The paintings in cave XVI mostly describe the incidents in the last life of the Buddha, while those in cave XVII generally describe the events in his past lives. Cave XIX is one of the four Chaitya caves at Ajanta. It is regarded as ' one of the perfect specimens of the Buddhist art in India'. Some more caves of the Vakataka age still exist near the village Gulvada, about 11 miles west of Ajanta. They are known as the Ghatotkacha caves and were excavated, like cave XVI, by Varahadeva, the minister of the Vakataka king Harishena. Several temples of Hindu gods and goddesses were also built in the Vakataka age. The ruins of a magnificent temple of Rama have been brought to view at Pavnar [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 272 f.]. Another was on the Ramagiri (Ramtek) hill. The others are known from references in copper-plate grants.

The feudatory family which got caves XVII and XIX excavated and decorated with sculptures and paintings was ruling from some unknown place in Khandesh. As stated before, the founder of the family, whose name is unfortunately lost in the Ajanta inscription, probably flourished in circa A. D. 275—300. He was evidently a feudatory of the Abhiras. His successors, of whom ten are mentioned in the Ajanta inscription, seem to have continued to acknowledge the supremacy of the Abhiras till their downfall. Thereafter, they transferred their allegiance to the Vakatakas. The eighth uchchhvasa of the Dashakumaracharita, which reflects the last period of Vakataka rule, states that the king of Rishika (Khandesh) was a feudatory of the king of Vidarbha [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. xxxii f.]. After the fall of the Vakatakas, this family seems to have been overthrown by the Kalachuri king Krishnaraja.

According to the Puranas, the Vakataka king Pravarasena I, had four sons, all of whom ruled as kings. As stated before, the eldest of them was Gautamiputra, whose son Rudrasena I, established himself at Nandivardhana near Nagpur. The second son was Sarvasena, who ruled from Vatsagulma (Washim in the Akola district). Where the remaining two sons were ruling is not known; but one of them may have been ruling over southern Maharashtra. He seems to have been overthrown by Mananka, the founder of the Early Rashtrakuta family. The history of this family has been unfolded during the last few years. From three copper-plate grants which have been discovered in southern Maharashtra, we get the following genealogy [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (First ed.). p. 178 f.]: —

Mana alias Vibhuraja             Avidhya                           Bhavishya
                                                                                |
                                                                                Abhimanyu

Mananka, the progenitor of the family, flourished in circa A. D. 350. He founded Manapura, which he made his capital. He is described in one of the grants as the illustrious ruler of the Kuntala country. As stated before, Kuntala was the name of the upper Krishna valley in ancient times. The place mentioned in some of the grants can be identified in the Satara and Sholapur districts. Their capital Manapura is probably identical with Man, the chief town of the Man taluka of the Satara district.

These Rashtrakutas of Manapura sometimes came into conflict with the Vakatakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The Pandarang-apalli plates of avidheya state that Mananka harassed the rulers of Ashmaka and Vidarbha. On the other hand, an inscription in cave XVI at Ajanta states that the Vakataka king Vindhyasena (i.e., Vindhyashakti II) defeated the king of Kuntala, who evidently belonged to this Rashtrakuta family.

From certain passages in the Kuntaleshvaradautya, a Sanskrit work ascribed to Kalidasa, which have been cited in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara, the Shringaraprakasha and the Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja and the Auchityavicharacharcha of Kshemendra, we learn that the famous Gupta king Chandra-gupta II—Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa as an ambassador to the court of the king of Kuntala. Kalidasa was at first not well received there, but he gradually gained the Kuntalesha's favour and stayed at the royal court for some time. When he returned, he reported to Vikramaditya that the lord of Kuntala was spending his time in enjoyment, throwing the responsibility of governing the kingdom on him (i.e., on Vikramaditya). This Kuntalesha was probably identical with Devaraja, the son of Mananka [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 1 f.]. Through the influence of Chandragupta II, the two royal families of the south, viz., the Vakatakas and the Early Rashtrakutas were reconciled with each other. Later, Harishena, the last known Vakataka ruler, raided Kuntala and exacted a tribute from its king. It is noteworthy that in the eighth uchchhvasa of the Dashakumaracharita the king of Kuntala is described as a feudatory of the king of Vidarbha.

After the downfall of the Vakatakas in the beginning of the sixth century A. D., Vidarbha was occupied for some time by the Vishnukundin king Madhavavarman I. This is shown by the Vishnukundin coins found at Pavnar and some other places in Vidarbha. Madhavavarman was a very powerful king. He married a Vakataka princess who was probably a daughter or some near relative of the last known Vakataka Emperor Harishena. He took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the downfall of the Vakatakas and extended his kingdom far and wide. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including eleven Ashvamedhas. That he had brought even Western Maharashtra under his rule is shown by his copper-plate grant discovered at Khanapur in the Satara district. His grandson Madhavavarman II, describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya. So he may have ruled in Western Maharashtra for some time [Ep. In..Vol. X I,p. 312 f.].

The Vishnukundins were, however, soon ousted from Maharashtra and Vidarhha by the Kalachuri king Krishnaraja, who rose to power about A. D. 550. He ruled from Mahishmati, modern Maheshvara in the former Indore State. His coins have been found over a very wide territory extending from Rajputana in the north to Maharashtra in the south and from Konkan in the west to Vidarbha in the east. They resemble the silver coins of the Guptas and the Traikutakas, which were struck to the Graeco-Bactrian standard of the hemidrachma. But while the Kshatrapa and Traikutaka coins have the symbols of the chaitya (or a hill), the sun and the moon, these coins of Krishnaraja, have like some western issues of Skandagupta, the figure of a cou-chant bull, facing right in the centre of the reverse side. They have the legend Parama-Maheshvara-mata-pitri-pad-amdhyata-Shri-Krishnaraja (meaning that the coin is of the illustrious Krishnaraja, who is a devout worshipper of Maheshvara and who meditates on the feet of his mother and father). The coins were known as Krishnaraja-rupakas and have been mentioned in the Anjaneri plates dated in the year 461 of the ABhandaraa era (corresponding to A. D. 710-11). They were, therefore, in circulation for at least 150 years after the time of Krishnaraja. These coins have been found at Dhamori in the Amravati district of Vidarbha. That Vidarbha was included in the Empire of Krishnaraja is also shown by the Nagardhan plates of his feudatory Svamiraja, dated in the year 322 (A. D. 573) of the ABhandaraa era. The plates were issued from Nandivardhana, which seems to have retained its importance even after the downfall of the Vakatakas. Svamiraja, who issued the plates, probably belonged to the Rashtrakuta family [C.I.I.,Vol-IV, p.611f.].

Krishnaraja was succeeded by his son Shankaragana, whose copper-plate grant was discovered at Abhona in the Nasik district. It is dated in the ABhandaraa year 347, corresponding to A. D. 597. It records the gift of some nivartanas of land in the village Vallisika situated in the vishaya (district) of Bhogavardhana (modern Bhokardhan in the Aurangabad district). Vallisika is modern Valsa, 7 miles north of Bhokardhan. The donee was a Brahmana residing at Kallivana (modern Kalwan, the chief town of a taluka of the same name in the Nasik district). Some other inscriptions of Shankaragana have been discovered in Gujarat. One of his copper-plate inscriptions was issued from his camp at Ujjain. This grant shows that Shankaragana was, like his father, ruling over an extensive kingdom, extending from Malwa in the north to at least the Nasik and Aurangabad districts in the south.

Shankaragana was succeeded by his son Buddharaja, who was involved in a struggle with the Chalukya King Mangalesha on the southern frontier of his kingdom soon after his accession. He received a crushing defeat, but his adversary could not follow up his victory owing to internal dissensions. Buddharaja, therefore, continued to hold his kingdom intact. Two grants of this king have come to light so far and both of them were issued after his defeat by Mangalesha. He was, however, overthrown later by Pulakeshin II, as will be shown below.

All the Early Kalachuris were fervent devotees of Shiva. That they belonged to the Pashupata sect of Shaivism is shown by the description of Krishnaraja as devoted to Pashupati from his very birth. Anantamahayi, the queen of Buddharaja, is specially mentioned as a follower of the Pashupata sect. The magnificent rock-cut temple of Shiva, now known as Elephanta, belongs to their age. It was probably carved under their patronage, though definite proof of this is lacking [C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. cxlviif.].

The Chalukyas of Badami rose to power in the first half of the sixth century A.D. The Badami stone inscription of Pulakeshin I, who is the first independent king of the dynasty, is dated in the year A.D. 543. He performed the Ashvamedha and several other Shrauta sacrifices [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 4 f.]. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I, who made some conquests in south India and is described as ' the night of destruction to the Nalas (of the Bastar district), the Mauryas of Konkan and the Kadambas (of Vanavasi in north Kanara)'.

When Kirtivarman died, his son Pulakeshin II, was a minor. So his younger brother Mangalesha succeeded him. He defeated Buddharaja, the Kalachuri King, who was ruling in north Maharashtra, Konkan, Gujarat and Malwa, and also Svamiraja of the Chalukya family, who was governing the Revati-dvipa (modern Redi in the Ratnagiri district). The Aihole inscription [Ibid., Vol. VI, p. 1 f.] describes his fight with Buddharaja as follows: "In the temple in the form of the battle-field, Mangalesha married the lady in the form of the royal fortune of the Kalachuris, dispelling the darkness in the form of the enemy's elephants by means of hundreds of blazing torches which were the swords of his warriors". The description shows that Buddharaja was completely routed and fled away, leaving his whole treasure behind, which was captured by Mangalesha. The latter could not, however, follow up this victory; for just then Svamiraja of the Chalukya family, a redoubtable warrior who had attained victory in eighteen battles and was ruling over Revati-dvipa, rose in rebellion. Mangalesha had, therefore, to abandon his original plan of making an expedition of conquest in north India and rushed to Konkan to chastise the rebellious feudatory. In the fight that ensued he killed Svamiraja and made a grant of a village in south Konkan to the god in the temple of Mahakuta. So Buddharaja continued to rule of some years even after his disastrous defeat by Mangalesha.

Mangalesha's reign ended in disaster and he lost his life in a civil war with his nephew Pulakeshin II. Just about that time the Chalukya kingdom was invaded from the north by one Govinda who probably belonged to the aforementioned Rashtrakuta family ruling in southern Maharashtra. Pulakeshin adopted conciliatory measures in dealing with him as he was a powerful foe. His descendants do not, however, appear to have held Maharashtra for a long time, for Pulakeshin soon annexed both southern and northern Maharashtra and extended the northern limit of his empire to the Narmada. That he ousted the Rashtrakutas from southern Maharashtra is shown by the Satara plates of his brother Vishnuvardhana, which record the grant of a village on the southern bank of the Bhima. Pulakeshin also defeated the Kalachuri King Buddharaja and annexed his kingdom. He is said to have thereby become the lord of three Maharashtras, including Vidarbha. The Rashtrakutas of Vidarbha, who were previously feudatories of the Kalachuris, transferred their allegiance to the Chalukyas of Badami and like the latter, began to date their records in the Shaka era. Two grants of this feudatory Rashtrakuta family have been found in Vidarbha — one, dated Shaka 615, was found near Akola [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXIX, p. 109 f.] and the other, dated Shaka 631, was discovered at Multai [Ind. Ant., Vol. XVIII, p. 230 f.] in the Betul district previously included in Vidarbha. They give the following genealogy: —

Durgaraja
|
Govindaraja
|
Svamikaraja
|
Nannaraja alias Yuddhasura

Nannaraja was ruling from Padmanagara, which was probably identical with the aforementioned Padmapura in the Bhandara district, once a capital of the Vakatakas.

Pulakeshin obtained a resounding victory over Harsha, the lord paramount of north India. Thereafter, he assumed the title of Parameshvara (Emperor). He defeated the rulers of several countries such as Aparanta (Konkan}, Kosala (Chhattisgadh), Kalinga (Orissa), Pishtapura (Pithapuram) and Kanchi (Conjeeverum). He made the Cholas, the Keralas and the Pandyas his allies. He thus became the undisputed lord of south India.

The capital of Pulakeshin in the beginning of his reign was Badami in the Bijapur district. When his empire extended to the Narmada, he must have felt the need of a more central place for his capital. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang calls him the lord of Maharashtra. This shows that he must have visited him somewhere in Maharashtra. Several identifications of his capital have been proposed by scholars, but the most likely view seems to be that of Fleet and Burgess, who identified it with Nasik. The pilgrim says that in the east of this country (i.e., Maharashtra) was a mountain range with ridges one above another in succession, tiers of peaks and sheer summits. Here was a monastery, the base of which was in a dark defile, and its lofty halls and deep chambers were quarried in the cliff and rested on the peak; its tier of halls and storeyed terraces had the cliff on their back and faced the ravine [Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II,p. 239.]. This description seems to suit the caves at Ajanta and as this monastery lay to the east of the capital, the latter appears to be Nasik rather than any other place in Maharashtra. Hiuen Tsang has left a graphic picture of Maharashtra and its people. " The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies, relentless. If they are insulted, they will risk their lives to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge they first give their enemies a warning; then each being armed they attack each other with spears;..... If a general loses battle, they do not inflict punishment, but pre-sent him women's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself Each time they are about to engage in conflict, they intoxicate themselves with wine and then one man with a lance in hand, will meet ten thousand and challenge them to a fight. Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, which, rushing forward in mass, trample every thing down so that no enemy can stand before them. The king, in consequence of possessing such men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the Kshatriya caste and his name is Pulakeshin [S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (pub. by Susil Gupta), Vol. IV, p. 448 f.]."

After the overthrow of the Kalachuris, Pulakeshin II, divided their extensive kingdom among his relatives and trusted chiefs Southern Gujarat extending from the Kim in the north to the Damanganga in the south was placed in charge of a Sendraka chief. The Sendrakas ruled over this territory and also in Khandesh for three generations. The founder of the family was Bhanushakti alias Nikumbha. His son was Adityashakti and the latter's son was Allashakti. Only four grants of this family have been discovered so far. Three of them were made by Allashakti. The earliest of them is dated in the year 404 of the ABhandaraa era (A. D. 653) and registers the donation of some land in the village Pippalikheta (modern Pimpalner), about 9 miles west of Kasare in the Dhulia district. This grant shows that Allashakti was ruling in Khandesh also [C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. ll0f.]. Another grant of Allashakti was found at Bagumra in Gujarat and is dated in the year 406 of the ABhandaraa era. It records the grant of the village Balisa (modern Wanesa in the Bardoli taluka of the Surat district). After the issue of this grant the Sendrakas were ousted from southern Gujarat and their rule was confined to Khandesh. The last known grant of the Sendrakas found at Mundakhede in Khandesh was made by Allashakti's son Jayashakti and is dated in the Shaka year 602 (A.D. 680) [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXIX, p. 116 f.].

Pulkeshin's own grant dated in the Shaka year 552 (A.D. 630) was found at Lohaner in the Baglan taluka of the Nasik district. It records Pulakeshin's donation of the village Goviyanaka to a Brahmana residing at Lohanagara (Lohaner) [Khare, Sources of the Mediaeval History of the Deccan (Marathi) Vol. I, p. 1 f.].

Pulakeshin II, was killed in battle at Badami in circa A.D. 642 by the Pallava King Narasimhavarman, who conquered Vatapi and assumed the title of Vatapikonda (the Conqueror of Vatapi).

Pulakeshin II, was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya after a long continued struggle. He appointed his younger brother Dharashraya - Jayasimha to govern south Gujarat, north Konkan and the Nasik district. Jayasimha's Nasik plates are dated in the ABhandaraa year 436 (A.D. 685) and record his grant of the village Dhondhaka on the occasion of the Vishuva (or vernal equinox). Dhondhaka is identical with Dhondegaon, 12 miles north by west of Nasik. The plates contain an interesting reference to Jayasimha's victory over Vajjada (or Vajrata) in the country between the Mahi and the Narmada [C.I.I.,Vol. IV, p. 127 f.]. It seems that some king named Vajrata invaded the country of the Gurjaras, who were feudatories of the Early Chalukyas. The Gurjara King sought the help of his suzerain Vikramaditya I. The latter ordered Jayasimha to proceed to the north for the rescue of the Gurjara feudatory. He won a decisive victory, which is placed on par with Pulakeshin's brilliant victory over Harsha and is mentioned as one of the most glorious achievements of the Western Chalukyas in many records of their political successors, the Rashtrakutas. This Vajrata was probably identical with Shiladitya III, the King of Valabhi in Kathiawad [lbid., Vol. IV, p. lxf.]. Vikramaditya then appointed Jayasimha to govern south Gujarat, ousting the Sendrakas who were previously ruling there. Jayasimha appointed his son Shryashraya Shiladitya to rule in southern Gujarat as Yuvaraja. Two inscriptions of Shryashraya, dated in the years 421 and 443 of the ABhandaraa era (corresponding to A.D. 671 and 693, respectively) have been found recording his grants of land in south Gujarat. That he was ruling on behalf of his father is indicated not only by his title Yuvaraja mentioned in them but also by the seal of the latter grant which bears the legend Dharashraya [Ibid, Vol. IV, p. 127.].

Jayasimha's younger son Mangalarasa, who assumed the biruda Janashraya, is known to have made some land grants. He ruled from Mangalapuri, which was founded by him. It has not yet been identified. After the death of his elder brother he was appointed to govern south Gujarat. He placed his younger brother Avanijanashraya-Pulakeshin in charge of the territory.

During the reign of Vikramaditya II, a later descendant of Pulakeshin II, Gujarat was invaded by a formidable force of the Tajikas or Arabs. The Navsari plates of Avanijanashraya -Pulakeshin give a graphic description of the battle. The Arabs had already defeated the Saindhavas, the Chavotakas, the Surash-tras, the Mauryas and the Gurjaras and were attempting to penetrate to the Dakshinapatha (Deccan), but Avanijanashraya inflicted a crushing defeat on them in circa A.D. 789. The Chalukya Emperor then honoured Avanijanashraya with several titles, one of which was Anivartaka-nivartayitri (the Repeller of the unrepellable) [C. I.1., Vol. IV, p. 138 f.].

From two land-grants recently discovered at Anjaneri, a village near Trimbak in the Nasik district, we have come to know of a feudatory family which ruled over northern Konkan and the Nasik district in the seventh and eighth centuries A. D. [Ibid., Vol. IV p. Ixci f.]. This family claimed descent from Harishchandra, the famous legendary king of the solar race. Svamichandra, who rose to power in the reign of Vikramaditya I. was the founder of this family and flourished in circa A. D. 660. Three generations of this family are known from the two sets of the Anjaneri plates: Svamichandra, his son Simhavarman and the latter's son Bhoga-shakti alias Prithivichandra, who made the grants. One of the grants is dated in the ABhandaraa year 461 (A. D. 710-11). It records the grant of eight villages and certain rights, dues and taxes in favour of the god Narayana, who was named Bhoge-shvara evidently after king Bhogashakti, and was installed in the temple at Jayapura, modern Jarvar Budrukh near Anjaneri. Bhogashakti is said to have brought by his valour the whole territory of his dominion under his sway. This was probably at the time of Vinayaditya's death (A. D. 696), when owing to the captivity of his son Vijayaditya there was anarchy in the kingdom. The second set of Anjaneri plates tells us that Bhogashakti granted certain rights, privileges and exemptions to the merchants of Samagiripattana when he resettled the town and the neighbouring villages some time after their devastation. Bhogashakti's successor was probably overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga, who, from his Ellora plates, is known to have occupied the Nasik district some time before A. D. 715.

Kirtivarman II, the last of the Early Chalukyas, was defeated by Dantidurga some time before A. D. 754, when he issued his Samangad plates. Kirtivarman continued to rule for a few years more, but he had lost the paramount position in the Deccan.

The Early Chalukyas were devotees of Vishnu, but during their time Buddhism continued to flourish as before in Maharashtra. Caves I to V and XXI to XXVIII at Ajanta were excavated in the seventh century A. D. Again, viharas were also excavated at Aurangabad and Ellora in this period, those at the latter place being triple-storeyed and of elaborate design. No Brahmanical structural temples of that age have survived, but there are some Brahmanical cave-temples at Ellora such as the Dashavatara cave, the Ravana-ki-khai and the Dumar lena, which belong to this period. These caves are noteworthy for their exquisitely modelled figures.

The Rashtrakutas, who succeeded the Early Chalukyas in the Deccan, originally hailed from Lattalura (modern Latur in the Osmanabad district). When they rose to power, they were probably residing in the Aurangabad district, where their earlier records have been found. Dantidurga was the real founder of the Rashtrakuta imperial power. His Ellora cave inscription mentions five ancestors beginning with Dantivarman, but we know nothing about them. These earlier members of the family were probably feudatories of the Early Chalukyas. Dantidurga made extensive conquests. The Ellora cave inscription records his victories over the rulers of Kanchi, Kalinga, Shrishaila, Malava, Tanka and Lata, but they do not all seem to have resulted in the acquisition of new territory. Though there is much exaggeration in the description of his conquests, there is no doubt that he ruled over Karnataka, Konkan, Maharashtra, Vidarbha and Gujarat.

A copper-plate inscription of Dantidurga was discovered at Ellora in the Aurangabad district [Ep. Ind.Vol XXV, p. 25 f.]. It was issued by him while residing at Elapura (modern Ellora) on Monday, the thirteenth tithi of the bright fortnight of Ashvina and records the grant of the village Pippalala in the territorial division of Chandanpuri-eighty-four. Chandanapuri still retains its ancient name and is situated on the Girna, three miles to the south-east of Malegaon, while Pippalala is modern Pipral, 12 miles to the south-east of Chandanapuri. The editor of the grant read its date as 663 and referring it to the Shaka era, took it as equivalent to A. D. 741. But the details of the date do not work out regularly and from the symbols used to denote the year, it appears more likely that the correct year is 463, which must be referred to the ABhandaraa era. It then becomes equivalent to A. D. 715.

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krisna I, who completed the conquests commenced by Dantidurga and shattered the power of the Early Chalukyas completely. One of his inscriptions was discovered at Bhandak in the Chandrapur district of Vidarbha. It is dated in the Shaka year 694 (A. D. 772) and records the grant of the village Nagana to a temple of the Sun in Udumbaramanti (modern Rani Amravati in the Yeotmal district).

Krishna I, was not only a great conqueror but also a great builder. He caused the great Shiva temple at Ellora to be carved out of solid rock. It is a replica in rock of a structural temple. It is carved out of a scarp more than 100 ft. high and covers an area of 300 ft. by 175 ft. The excavations consist of—(1) the main temple, (2) the nandi-shrine, (3) the gateway and (4) the cloister surrounding the courtyard. The magnitude of this excavation combined with the grandeur of conception and the high quality of its rich plastic embellishment render this cave-temple an unrivalled gem of Indian architecture. The temple was originally named Krishneshvara after the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, but is now known as Kailasa. It is described in a copper-plate grant in the following words: When the gods moving in their aerial cars saw it, they were struck with wonder, and constantly thought much over the matter and exclaimed, " This temple of Shiva is self-existent; for such beauty is not to be found in a work of art". Even the architect who constructed it was struck with wonder. "Wonderful": said he " I do not know how I could construct it". It is one of the noblest monuments of India.

In Vidarbha also the Rashtrakutas built several magnificent temples. Those at Markandi in the Chandrapur district, where the Vainganga takes a northern bend, are specially noteworthy. One of them, which is by far the best is dedicated to Shiva. Cunningham described it as follows [Cunningham, A. S. R., Vol. IX, p. 145 f.]: " The general style of the Markandi temple is like that of Khajuraho temples, with three rows of figures all round two feet and three inches in height. In each of these rows there are 45 human figures, making 135 in the lower part of the temple. Higher up than these there is a row of geese and a row of human figures. The whole surface of the temple is in fact literally covered with statues and ornaments. Altogether I counted 409 figures and there are about as many lions and elephants forming divisions between human figures. About one half of the panels are given to Shiva and Parvati in various forms. There are also many subordinate female figures, some dancing, some playing musical instruments and one holding a mirror, while putting antimony to her eye-lids."

Krishna I, was succeeded by his son Govinda II, in circa A. D. 773. Soon after his accession Govinda II abandoned himself to a life of pleasure. He left the administration to his younger brother Dhruva. The latter took advantage of the opportunity and began to secure all power for himself. He also made land-grants in his own names though Govinda II was then the de jure king. The plates discovered at Pimpri (Jalgaon district) dated in the Shaka year 697 (A. D. 775), record the grant of the village Lilagrama made by Dhruva on the occasion of a solar eclipse in Karttika. Lilagrama was situated in the vishaya (district) of Vatanagarika. It is identical with Nilagavhan. Vatanagarika has been identified with Vani in the Nasik district. Govinda II, was then on the throne as is shown by the Dhulia plates dated in the Shaka year 701 (A. D. 779), which record the grant of a village in the Nasikya vishaya. Soon after this grant was made, Govinda was deposed by Dhruva in circa A. D. 780. A copper-plate grant of the latter, dated in Shaka 715 was discovered at Daulatabad in the Aurangabad district. It records the donation of a village made by his feudatory Shankaragana with his consent. Dhruva is called Kalivallabha (favourite of warriors) therein.

Dhruva died soon after this grant was made and was succeeded by his son Govinda III. Soon after his accession he made a copper-plate grant discovered at Paithan. It is dated in the Shaka year 716 (A. D. 794) and records the king's gift of the village Limbasarika situated in the Pratishthana-bhukti. The village has not yet been identified.

The Rashtrakuta family produced several great conquerors who boldly invaded north and south India and achieved memorable victories. Dhruva was the first among them. He defeated both the Gurjara-Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharma-pala, who were contending for supremacy in north India, and pressed as far as the doab. Since then the two rivers Ganga and Yamuna began to appear on the Rashtrakuta banner.

Govinda III proved to be a still greater conqueror. After obtaining an easy victory over the Ganga king Muttarasa, he led his victorious arms to central and north India. He first defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata and his ally Chandra-gupta in central India and then routed Dharmapala of Bengal, who had espoused the cause of Chakrayudha of Kanauj. He next marched victoriously until his horses drank and his elephants plunged into the spring waters of the Himalayas. He then returned to the Narmada and marching along the bank of the river, he conquered Malava, Kosala, Vanga, Dahala and Odra countries. He next spent the rainy season at Shribhavana (modern Sarbhon in Gujarat) where his son Amoghavarsha I, was born. Thereafter Govinda marched to the bank of the Tungabhadra. Using Alampura (or Helapur) on the bank of the river as his base, he led victorious campaigns against the Keralas, the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. Even the king of Lanka submitted to him, sending two statues—one of himself and the other of his minister to his camp at Helapura [Ep.Ind., Vol. XXXII.p. 157 f.].

Several copper-plate grants of Govinda III have been found in Western Maharashtra, Marathwada and Vidarbha divisions. It is not possible to describe them all, but a few may be noticed here. A set of plates discovered at Vani in the Dindori taluka of the Nasik district was issued by Govinda III and is dated in the Shaka year 730 (A. D. 808). It records the grant of Ambaka-grama in the Vatanagara vishaya of the Nasika-desha to the Brahmana Damodara-bhatta, an inhabitant of Vengi [Ind. Ant., Vol. XI, p. 157 f.]. Another set of plates discovered at Dharur in the Bid district is dated in the Shaka year 728 (A. D. 806) and records the grant of the village Anahe (modern Anegaon) in the vishaya of Dharaura (modern Dharur) [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, p. 285 f.]. Four more grants of Govinda have been found in Vidarbha. The earliest of them is dated in the Shaka year 722 and records his donation of the village Anjana-vamti (modern Anjanvati in the Amravati district of Vidarbha). Its boundary villages Gohasodva, Sallaimala, Kure and Vatapura are now represented by Gahva, Salora-Amla, Kurha and Vadur, respectively. Veyaghana and Talevataka where the donees of the grant resided are identical with Waigaon and Talegaon in the vicinity of Anjanvati. Three more grants dated in the Shaka years 725, 729 and 734 have been found at Sirso in the Murtizapur taluka of the Akola district. They record Govinda's donations of the villages Jharika (modern Jhari in the Kelapur taluka of the Yeotmal district), Sisavai (identical with Sirso) and Lohara (in the Murtizapur taluka) respectively. Their boundary villages also can be identified in their vicinity. Most of Govinda's grants were issued from Mayurakhandi, which was evidently his capital. It has not been identified satisfactorily so far.

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha I, who was a man of peaceful disposition, but whose reign was full of troubles. He had first to fight with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, then the Gangas of Gangavati, and also his relatives in Gujarat. He transferred his capital to Manyakheta (modern Malkhed). A copper-plate grant made by him and dated in the Shaka year 742 was recently discovered at Javkheda in the Shahada taluka of the Dhulia district. It records the king's donation of the village Vayipadraka in the territorial division of Pra-kashaya on the occasion of the Dakshinayana sankranti. Vayipadraka cannot be identified, but Prakashaya is probably identical with Prakashe in the Dhulia district. Javkheda is 15 miles north-east of Prakashe.

Amoghavarsha loved and encouraged science and literature and treated all religions with equal reverence. He is the author of the Kavirajamarga, the oldest work on poetics in the Kanarese language. He patronised Jinasena, the author of the Kanarese work Adipurana. Amoghavarsha voluntarily retired from public administration in order to engage himself in religious pursuits. On one occasion he offered a finger of his hand to the goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur to ward off a public calamity. Such instances are rare in the history of any country.

Another noteworthy king of this Rashtrakuta family was Indra III, the great-grandson of Amoghavarsha I. Like his illustrious ancestors, Dhruva and Govinda III, Indra also led a victorious campaign in north India. He followed the route of Bhopal, Jhanshi and Kalpi in the course of his invasion of Kanauj, the imperial capital of north India for more than three hundred years. At Kalpi his army was encamped in the courtyard of the temple of Kalapriyanatha, well-known to Sanskritists as the place where all plays of Bhavabhuti were staged [Mirashi, studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 37f.]. His horses crossed the Yamuna at Kalpi and then marched on Kanauj, which he completely devastated. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala fled to Mahoba to seek the help of his Chandella feudatory Harsha. Indra III's northern campaign was a memorable event unparalleled for its brilliance in the history of the Rashtrakutas.

Recently some grants of Indra III made on the occasion of his Coronation have been discovered in the Marathwada division. One of them was found at Jambgaon in the Gangapur taluka of the Aurangabad district. It is dated in the Shaka year 835 A. D. 914) and records the donation of the village Khairondi near Pratishthana (modern Kharvandi near Paithan). The boundary villages can be identified in its vicinity [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, p. 223 f.]. Two more grants made at the same time have been found at Bagumra in Gujarat. All these were composed by Trivikramabhatta, who, as shown below, was a native of Vidarbha. Two more grants of Indra III made in the following year (Shaka 836) have been recently found at Vajirkheda in the Malegaon taluka of the Nasik district. They record the king's donations of some villages to Jain monasteries in the Nasik district. They were composed by Rajashekhara, who may be identical with the famous author of the Kavyamimamsa and other works [Nagpur University Journal, Vol. CVII, p. 117 f.].

Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha II, but he died within a year. His younger brother Govinda IV came to the throne thereafter. He was known for his liberality and rightly had the biruda Suvarnavarsha (the gold-rainer). On the Occasion of his coronation he donated eight hundred villages, four lakhs of gold coins and thirty-two lakhs of drammas (silver Coins) to temples and bestowed on the Brahmanas six hundred agraharas and three lakhs of gold coins. Recently another copperplate grant, dated in the Shaka year 851 (A. D. 929) has been discovered at the village Andura in the Akola district of Vidarbha [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, p. lxxix f.]. It records the donation of Elauri (modern Erali) near the railway station Nandura on the Central Railway. It was situated in the Vadaner—300 Division. Vadaner still retains its ancient name and lies about 9 miles west of Nandura. The boundary villages Nimbagrama and Dantigrama are now known as Nimgaon and Dadgaon in the vicinity of Erali.

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and the Kalachuris of Tripuri were matrimonially connected and their relations were generally cordial. But in the reign of Govinda IV they became strained. The Kalachuri king Yuvarajadeva I espoused the cause of his son-in-law Baddiga—Amoghavarsha III, the uncle of Govinda IV. and sent a large army to invade the Rashtrakuta dominion. When the army reached the Payoshni (modern Purna), a pitched battle was fought near Achalapura between the Rashtrakuta and Kalachuri forces, in which the latter became victorious. This event is commemorated in the Sanskrit play Viddhashalabhanjika of Rajashekhara, which was staged at Tripuri in jubilation at this victory [C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. lxxix f.].

The Rashtrakuta feudatories who rose in rebellion against Govinda IV, deposed him and placed his uncle Baddiga-Amogha-varsha III on the throne. The latter was a man of quiet nature and spiritual temperament, who left the administration of the kingdom to his ambitious and able son Krishna III. Like some of his ancestors, Krishna also led an expedition in north India and captured the forts of Kalanjara and Chitrakuta. He succeeded his father in A. D. 939. He then led an expedition against the Cholas and defeated them in a sanguinary battle at Takkola in the Arcot district. He next carried his victorious arms to Rameshvara, where he built two temples. Hearing of his victories, the kings of Kerala, Pandya and Ceylon submitted to him. He also placed his own nominee on the throne of Vengi. He thus became the lord paramount of south India.

Several stone and copper-plate inscriptions of the reign of Krishna III have been found in the different parts of the Deccan. One of them may be noticed here. The Deoli plates dated Shaka 862 (A. D. 940) register the donation of the village Talapuru-shaka in the vishaya (district) of Nagapura-Nandivardhana. This expression denotes Nandivardhana near Nagpur. This is the earliest mention of Nagpur. Among the boundaries of the donated villages is mentioned the river Kanhana, modern Kanhan, which flows 10 miles from Nagpur [Mirashi, Studiesin Indology, Vol. II, p. 253 f.].

After the downfall of the Vakatakas there was no imperial power ruling in Vidarbha. The centre of political power shifted successively to Mahishmati, Badami, and Manyakheta. Men of learning who could not get royal patronage in Vidarbha had to seek it elsewhere. Bhavabhuti, who ranks next only to Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature, was a native of Vidarbha. In the prologue of his play Mahaviracharita he tells us that his ancestors were known as Udumbara. They probably hailed from a place of that name which may be identified with Umarkhed in the Yeotmal district. There is a tradition still current at the place which corroborates this identification. The ancestors of Bhavabhuti later moved to Padmapura in Vidarbha as stated by him in his play Mahaviracharita. This place was once a capital of the Vakatakas and is probably identical with Padampur near Amgaon in the Bhandara district [Ibid., Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 22 f.]. With the downfall of the Vakatakas that place lost its importance. In the beginning of the eighth century when Bhavabhuti flourished there was no great king ruling in Vidarbha. Bhavabhuti had, therefore, to go to Padmavati, now called Padam Pawaya in north India and had to get his plays staged at the fair of Kalapriyanatha (the Sun-god at Kalpi) [Ibid., Vol. I (Second ed.), p. 37 f.]. Later, he obtained royal patronage at the court of Yashovarman of Kanauj. Rajashekhara, another great son of Vidarbha, was probably a native of Vatsagulma (modern Washim in the Akola district), which he has glorified in the Kavyami-mamsa as the pleasure-resort of the god of love. He and his ancestors Akalajalada, Tarala and Surananda had to leave their home country of Vidarbha and to seek patronage at the court of the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Rajashekhara's early plays, viz., the Balaramayana, the Balabharata and the Karpuramanjari, were put on the boards in Kanauj under the patronage of the Gurjara-Prathiharas. Later, when the glory of the Gurjara-Pratiharas declined as a result of the raid of the Rashtrakuta king Indra III, Rajashekhara returned to the south. He seems to have enjoyed for some time the patronage of Indra III; for the two sets of the Vajirkheda plates dated in the Shaka year 836 were drafted by him [Nagpar University Journal, Vol. XVII, p. 117 f.]. Later, he moved to Tripuri, where his last play Viddha-shalabhanjika was staged as stated before. Another great poet of Vidarbha who had to go abroad in search of royal patronage, was Trivikramabhatta, the author of the Nalachampu in which he has given a graphic description of several towns, holy places and rivers of Vidarbha. He flourished at the court of the Rashtrakuta king, Indra III and is known to have drafted the two sets of the Bagumra plates and also the Jamgaon plates of that king [Ep. Ind., Vol. IX pp. 24 f.; Vol. XXXVI,p. 223 f].

During the Rashtrakuta period a feudatory family established itself in the northern and southern Konkan as also in the southern Maratha country comprising the districts of Kolhapur, Miraj and Satara. They bore the title of Tagara-puradhishvara, which indicates that they originally hailed from Tagara (modern Ter in the Osmanabad district). All the branches of this family traced their descent from the mythical Vidyadhara prince Jimuta-vahana, who offered to sacrifice himself to rescue a Naga from the clutches of Garuda. The Shilaharas of south Konkan rose to power as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Sanaphulla, the founder of this family, is said to have had the favour of Krishna-raja, who is evidently the first Rashtrakuta king of that name. His capital was probably at Chandrapura, modern Chandor on the left bank of the river Paroda, south of Goa. His successor Dhammiyara is said to have founded Balipattana (modern Kharepatan in the Ratnagiri district), which he made his capital. This family ruled in south Konkan from circa A. D. 765 to A. D. 1020. These Shilaharas remained loyal to their suzerains who were the Rashtrakutas and give their genealogy in their grants even after their overthrow by the Later Chalukya king Tailapa. Rattaraja, the last known king of this branch of the Shilaharas, made a grant to his teacher Atreya, the disciple of the Shaiva Acharya Ambhojashambhu, who belonged to the Karkaroni branch of the Mattamayura clan of Shaivism. Mattamayura, the original seat of the clan, is probably identical with Kadwaha in central India.

Rattaraja is the last known king of this branch. He declared his independence during the reign of the Later Chalukya king Vikramaditya when the imperial power became weak. But Jaya-simha, the younger brother of Vikramaditya V, invaded south Konkan, overthrew the reigning king and appropriated his possessions as stated in his Miraj plates, dated in A. D. 1024.

North Konkan was conquered by the Rashtrakuta king Danti-durga some time in the second quarter of the eighth century A. D. Kapardin I, the first known Shilahara king of north Konkan, was placed in charge of the country by the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III. Since then north Konkan came to be known as Kapardi-dvipa or Kavadi-dvipa. The capital of this branch was Puri, now known as Rajapuri in the Kolaba district. This branch also produced several kings who built magnificent temples like the one at Ambarnath and gave liberal patronage to Sanskrit learning. They continued to hold north Konkan till A. D. 1266. The last king Someshvara was defeated by the Yadava king Mahadeva on land and he betook himself to the sea. He was pursued by him and was drowned in a naval engagement that followed. His kingdom was thereafter annexed by the Yadavas.

The third branch of the Shilaharas ruled over the Southern Maratha Country comprising the districts of Satara, Kolhapur and Belgaon. Their family deity was the goddess Mahalakshmi, whose boon they claim to have secured in their copper-plate grants. Their capital was probably Kolhapur, though some of their grants mention Valavada and the hill fort of Pranalaka as places of royal residence. This branch rose to power late in the Rashtrakuta period and so, unlike the kings of the other two branches, they do not give the genealogy of the Rashtrakutas even in their early grants. Later, they acknowledged the supremacy of the Later Chalukyas for some time. This branch continued to hold the Southern Maratha Country from circa A. D. 940 to A. D. 1215.

In the Vikramankadevacharita Bilhana gives a graphic description of the Vidyadhara (i.e., Shilahara) princess Chandralekha. She was probably a daughter of the Shilahara prince ruling from Karahata (modern Karhad), for the svayamvara of the princess is said to have taken place at Karahata. She chose the powerful Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI as her husband in that svayamvara. In the Rajatarangini, Kalhana describes how when Harsha, the contemporary king of Kashmir, saw a portrait of Chandala (i.e., Chandralekha), the beautiful wife of the Karahata king Parmandi, he became smitten with love and vowed that he would obtain Chandala by overthrowing Parmandi. Kalhana holds the king to ridicule for his foolishness [Rajatarangini, Vol. VII, vv. 1119 f.].

The last known king of this branch was Bhoja II, the greatest ruler of this line. On account of his great valour he was known as Vira-Bhoja. He assumed the imperial titles Rajadhiraja Para-meshvara, Parama-bhattaraka and Pashchima-Chakravarti. This could not, however, be tolerated by the Yadavas, who were then establishing their supremacy in the Deccan. Singhana, the mighty Yadava king of Devagiri, invaded the Shilahara kingdom and laid siege to the fort of Pranala (Panhala). He soon reduced it and taking Bhoja captive, he threw him into prison on the same fort. Thereafter we begin to get the inscriptions of the Governor who was appointed by the Yadavas to administer the country.

Like the Shilaharas of the other two branches, the Shilaharas of Kolhapur also extended their patronage to learned men. One of these was Somadeva, the author of the Shabdamavachandrika, a work of Jainendra Vyakarana [Ind. Ant., Vol .X,p.76,n].

The Rashtrakuta power became weak after the death of Krishna III. Within six years his large empire crumbled like a house of cards. Taila II, who was the founder of the Later Chalukya dynasty, who was a Mahasamanta of the Rashtrakutas, suddenly came into prominence. He defeated and killed in battle Karka II, the last Rashtrakuta king, and captured his capital Manya-kheta. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Paramaras. The Paramara king Vakpati-Munja planned to invade the Chalukya dominion, but his wise minister Rudraditya advised him not to cross the Godavari which was the boundary between the Chalukya and Paramara dominions. Munja did not heed his advice and was taken prisoner by Tailapa. He was placed in a prison, where he was waited upon by Tailapa's sister Mrinaladevi. He fell in love with her and foolishly disclosed to her the plan of escape. She communicated it to Tailapa, who is said to have made him beg from door to door and then executed him.

Among the successors of Taila II, the most famous is Vikramaditya VI, the founder of the Chalukya—Vikrama Samvat. He ascended the throne in A. D. 1075. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Hoysalas and signally defeated them. Two inscriptions of his reign have been found [Ep. Ind., Vol. III, p. 304 f.] in Vidarbha. One of them entitled Sitabaldi pillar inscription seems to have originally belonged to the Vindhyasena hill at Bhandak in the Chandrapur district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1008 (A. D. 1087) and registers the grant of some nivartanas of land for the grazing of cattle made by a feudatory called Dhadibhandaka. The other inscription was discovered at Dongargaon in the Yeotmal district [Ibid., Vol. XXVI, p. 177 f.]. It throws interesting light on the history of the Paramara dynasty. It shows that Jagaddeva the youngest son of the Paramara king Udayaditya, the brother of Bhoja, left Malva and sought service under Vikramaditya VI, who welcomed him and placed him in charge of some portion of western Vidarbha. The Dongargaon inscription is dated in the Shaka year 1034 (A. D. 1112). Another inscription of this Jagaddeva has come to notice at Jalna in the adjoining Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. It records several victories of Jagaddeva in Andhra, Dorasamudra and near the Arbuda mountain, and registers the construction of the temple of Nimbaditya by his minister Lolarka.

Vikramaditya's reign is renowned or account of some learned men who flourished at his court. Bilhana, who was patronised by him, wrote the Vikramankadevacharita, which is the poetic biography of Vikramaditya. Another great writer who flourished at his Court was Vijnaneshvara, the author of the well-known Mitakshara, a commentary on the Yajnavalkya-smriti.

Though western Vidarbha was thus occupied by the Later Chalukyas, the Paramaras of Dhar raided and occupied some portion of Eastern Vidarbha. A large stone inscription now deposited in the Nagpur Museum, which originally seems to have belonged to Bhandak in the Chandrapur district, traces the genealogy of the Paramara prince Naravarman from Vairisimha. It is dated in the Vikrama year 1161 corresponding to A. D. 1104-05. and records the grant of two villages to a temple which was probably situated in Bhandak; for some of the places mentioned in it can be identified in its vicinity. Thus Mokhalipataka is probably Mokhar, 50 miles west of Bhandak and Vyapura, the Mandala in which it was situated, may be identical with Vurgaon, 30 miles from Mokhar. The Paramaras continued to hold Eastern Vidarbha until their king Bhoja ruling from Chahanda (modern Chanda) was defeated by Kholeshvara, a general of the Yadava king Singhana [S. M. H. D., Vol. I, P. 74.].

The Later Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI was succeeded by his son Someshvara III, who became known as Sarvajna-Chakra-varti on account of his extensive knowledge. He composed the encyclopaedic work Manasollasa or Abhilashitarthachintamani. An inscription of his reign has been discovered at Latur in the Osmanabad district. It records the construction of the temple of the god Papavinashana at Lattalur (modern Latur). It is dated in the Shaka year 1049 (A. D. 1123), which falls in the reign of Someshvara III.

Taila III, the last known Chalukya King, was overthrown by the Kalachuri Bijjala, who was his Commander-in-Chief, in A.D. 1156. The Kalachuri usurpation lasted for more than two decades. An inscription of this period dated in the Shaka year 1086 (A.D. 1164) was discovered at Savargaon in the Tuljapur tahsil of the Osmanabad district. It records the gift of some money for the construction of the temple of the goddess Amba at Savargaon. Maradadeva, who bears the title of Mahamandaleshvara, was probably a feudatory of the Kalachuri Bijjala as the date falls in the latter's reign (A.D. 1156—1168), though the inscription makes no mention of his name.

In the last quarter of the twelfth century A.D. the Yadavas of Devagiri came into prominence. They had previously been ruling over Seunadesha (Khandesh) as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. The founder of this family was Dridhaprahara the son of Subahu. His capital is named as Shrinagara in the Vrata-khanda, while from an early inscription it appears to have been Chandradityapura, which has been identified with modern Chandor in the Nasik distnct. His son and successor was Seunachandra I, from whom the country ruled came to be known as Seunadesha. It corresponds to modern Khandesh. It comprised the country from Nasik to Devagiri.

From a stone inscription found at Vaghli, six miles from Chalisgaon, we learn that a Maurya family hailing from Valabhi (modern Vala in Kathiawad) settled in Khandesh, where it ruled for several generations. Govindaraja, a later prince of this family, built a temple at Vaghli, to which he made several donations for the learned men and their pupils, who resorted to the Sattra attached to the temple. Govindraja, whose inscription at Vaghli is dated in Shaka 991 (A.D. 1069) was a feudatory of the Yadava King Seunachandra II.

Bhillama II, one of the Early Yadava Kings, assisted Tailapa of the Later Chalukya family in his war with Munja. Seunachandra II, a later member of this family, is said to have saved Vikram-aditya VI from a coalition of his enemies and placed him on the throne of Kalyani. Bhillama V of this family made a bid for paramount power in the Deccan. He led victorious expeditions against the Hoysalas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas and made himself master of the whole country north of the Krishna. He then founded the city of Devagiri (modern Daulatabad) and made it his captial. Thereafter, the Yadavas ruled from that city.

From a stone inscription [Ind.'Ant., Vol. XII, p. 126 f.] found at Anjaneri near Nasik it appears that there was a minor branch of the Yadava family ruling at Anjaneri. Seunadeva of this branch made some grants to a Jain temple. Seunadeva calls himself Mahasamanta and evidently ruled over a small district of which Anjaneri was the chief city.

Bhillama V's son Jaitugi or Jaitrapala killed Rudradeva of the Kakatiya dynasty on the field of battle and released his nephew whom he had put into prison. Under Jaitugi's son Singhana the power of the family greatly increased. We get coniderable information about his victories from the stone inscriptions of his General Kholeshvara at Ambe Jogai in the Bid district. Kholeshvara was a native of Vidarbha and was residing at Ambe where he has left his inscriptions. Some more details are furnished by a later copper-plate grant of Ramachandra's minister found at Purushottampuri in the Bid district [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXV, p. 199f.].

Singhana achieved several victories. He defeated the Hoysala King Vira-Ballala, the Kakatiya King Ganapati and the lord of Bhambhagiri, modern Bhamer in the Pimpalner taluka of the Dhulia district. He confined Bhoja II of the Shilahara family on the hill of Pranala (modern Panhala). Most of these victories were won by his Brahmana general Kholeshvara. The latter vanquished Arjunavarmadeva, King of Malwa, and even pressed as far as Varanasi, where he put the ruler Rajyapala to flight. Kholeshvara constructed several temples in Vidarbha including that of Sharangadhara (Vishnu) at Achalpura and also established agraharas on the bank of the Payoshni (Purna) and Varada (Wardha). The former agrahara still exists under the name of Kholapur in the Amravati district.

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna, who obtained victories over the Kings of Gurjara, Malava, Chola and Kosala. The Gurjara King was Vishaladeva and the Malava King was Jaitugideva. The contemporary Chola King was Rajendra III (A.D. 1246—1279). The Kosala King was apparently the contemporary ruler of Ratanpur in Chhattisgadh, who was probably the successor of Jajalladeva defeated by Singhana, but no records of his reign have so far been discovered. An inscription of the reign of Krishna has been found in the temple of Khandeshvara in the Amravati district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1177 (A.D. 1254-55), and records the donations of some gadyanas for the offerings of flowers in the temple of Khandeshvara [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 9 f.].

Krishna was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva. From the recently discovered Kalegaon plates we know the exact date of his coronation as the 29th August A.D. 1261 [Ibid., Vol. XXXII, p. 31 f.]. The most notable event of his reign was the annexation of the North Konkan after defeating Someshvara of the Shilahara dynasty. Mahadeva left the throne to his son Amana, but the latter was soon deposed by Krishna's son Ramachandra, who captured the impregnable fort by means of coup de'tat. Ramchandra won several victories as mentioned in the Purushottampuri plates dated in the Shaka year 1232 (A.D. 1310). He is said to have defeated with ease the ruler of Dahala (i.e., the Chedi country) subjugated the ruler of Bhandagara (Bhandara) and dethroned the King of Vajrakara. He is further credited with a victory over the Muhammedans, whom he drove out of Varanasi. He built there a golden temple of Sharangapani (Vishnu). His minister Purushottama received from him the grant of four villages, of which he formed an agrahara and donated it to several Brahmanas on the holy day of Kapilashashthi in the Shaka year 1232. The agrahara was named Purushottamapura after the donor. It is still extant under its original name on the southern bank of the Godavari, about 40 miles due west from Parbhani. The villages together with their boundaries can still be identified in the vicinity of Purushottampuri [Ibid.. Vol. XXV, p. 199f.].

A fragmentary stone inscription of the time of Ramachandra is built into the front wall of the temple of Lakshmana on the hill of Ramtek in the Nagpur district [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 9 f.]. In the first half it gives the genealogy of Ramchandra and in the second half it describes the temples, wells and tirthas on and in the vicinity of the hill which it calls Ramagiri. The object of the inscription seems to have been to record the repairs to the temple of Laksmana done by Raghava, a minister of Ramachandra.

In A.D. 1294 Ala-uddin Khilji invaded the kingdom of Ramachandra and suddenly appeared before the gates of Devagiri. Ramachandra was taken unaware and could not hold out long. He had to pay a heavy ransom to the Muslim conqueror. He continued, however, to rule till A.D. 1310 at least; for the aforementioned Purushottampuri plates are dated in that year. He was succeeded by his son Shankaragana some time in A.D. 1311. He discontinued sending the stipulated tribute to Delhi. He was then defeated and slain by Malik Kafur. Some time thereafter, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramachandra, raised an insurrection and drove away the Muhammedans, but his success was shortlived. The Hindu Kingdom of Devagiri thus came to an end in A.D. 1318.

Like their illustrious predecessors, the Yadavas also extended liberal patronage to art and literature. During their rule a peculiar style of architecture called Hemadpanti after Hemadri or Hemadpant, a minister of Mahadeva and Ramachandra, came.into vogue. The temples built in this style are found in all the districts of Maharashtra. Several learned scholars flourished at the Yadava Court. Of these Hemadri was the foremost. During the reign of Mahadeva he held the post of Shrikaranadhipa or the Head of the Secretariat. He was appointed Minister and Head of the Elephant Force by Ramachandra. He was as brave as he was learned. He conquered and annexed to the Yadava Kingdom the eastern part of Vidarbha called Jhadi-mahdala which included the Bhandara district. Hemadri is well-known as the author of the Chaturvarga-chintamani, comprising five parts, viz., (1) Viratakhanda, (2) Danakhanda, (3) Tirthakhanda, (4) Mokshakhanda, and (5) Pariseshakhanda. Of these, the third and the fourth Khandas have not come to light. Hemadri's work is held in great esteem and has been drawn upon by later writers of Dharmashastra. He is the author of the commentary on Shaunaka's Pranavakalpa, in which he follows Katyayana. His Ayurvedarasdyana, a commentary on Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya and Kaivalyadipika, gloss on Bopadeva's Muktaphala are well known.

Hemadri extended liberal patronage to learned men. Among them the most famous was Bopadeva. He was a native of Vedapada (modern Bedod) on the bank of the Wardha in the Adilabad district. Bopadeva is said to have composed ten works on grammar, nine on medicine, one for the determination of tithis, three on poetics and an equal number for the education of the Bhagavata doctrine. Only eight of these are now extant. The Mugdhabodha, his work on Sanskrit grammar, is very popular in Bengal.

Marathi literature also flourished in the age of the Yadavas. Chakradhara, who propagated the Mahanubhava sect in that age, used Marathi as the medium of his religious teachings. Following his example, several of his followers composed literary works in Marathi. They are counted among the first works in that language. Mukundaraja, the author of the Vedanta works Vivekasindhu and Paramamrita, and Jnanadeva, the celebrated author of the Bhavarthadipika, a commentary on the Bhagavadgita, are the most illustrious writers of that age.

TOP