There is no practice of employing hired labour. The imputed earnings of males, females and children working in the craft are as under: —

(a) Adult male—Re. 1.00 to Rs. 1.50 a day.

(b) Adult female—Re. 0.31 to Re. 0.50 a day.

(c) Children —Re. 0.25 a day.

The low rates of wages result from the fact that the labour required for the craft is abundant because of the non-technical character of many operations and also because labour involved in it is not recruited from the organised labour market but is generally drawn from the members of the family who would otherwise remain idle or will have to seek employment elsewhere.

Production and Marketing: It is difficult to assess the annual production of kosa silk cloth which is produced at Ganeshpur since no accounts are kept by the weavers. They sell the cloth to the merchants from Madras, Andhra Pradesh, etc., who visit the village once a month. The cloth is very popular in Southern India and it is estimated that about 75 per cent of the cloth produced at Ganeshpur is sold to these merchants and the rest is sold in the markets of Nagpur and Bhandara as also locally. The sale price of each type of cloth is given elsewhere in this chapter. The craft is a perennial one though in the rainy season, i.e., July-August, the production is generally below normal. Usually 75 yards of cloth valued at Rs. 200 is produced on one loom. On this basis, the gross value of the annual production of the 56 looms working in the village could be estimated at about Rs. 1,35,000.

Finance: The problem of finance to meet the expenses of raw materials, especially cocoons, and wages of workers is an important one. This is particularly so in case of this craft since the annual quota of cocoons required by the household has to be purchased during the period December-January. The fixed capital comprises land and building (i.e., the workshop), tools, implements, etc. So far as land and building are concerned, the households have not to incur any additional expenditure since a part of dwelling is used as a workshop where the various stages involved in the weaving of kosa silk cloth are carried out. The tools and implements, however, need some investment. The present tools and implements are the same as were used by the earlier generation of weavers. However, it is estimated that the amount of fixed capital required for investment in tools and implements per loom is about Rs. 125. Thus the total investment of the craft in tools and implements works out to about Rs. 7,000 at Ganeshpur. The working capital required for the operation of one loom per year is Rs. 1,350 and that of the craft as a whole in the village is round about Rs. 70,000 to Rs. 75,000. The entrepreneurs have to raise this capital themselves since there is no outside source to obtain it.

This industry appears to be confronted by two major problems, viz., (a) rising cost of production, and (b) fall in demand for kosa silk cloth.

The products of handloom weavers find their way to the market through various channels. To reduce the marketing charges of the middlemen, co-operative societies of handloom weavers have been organised in the district. According to 1961 Census, there were 37 weavers' societies in the district. Their combined membership was 2,833, share capital Rs. 69,000 and working capital Rs. 3.87 lakhs, in 1961. The weavers' societies supply the yarn to member-weavers and get the finished products woven by them. The decontrol of yarn had some adverse effect on the working of these societies with the result that some of the societies became stagnant. In 1967-68, the number of handloom weavers' co-operative societies showed a decline, the number of operating societies being 19 only. This was due to the shortage of power and yarn. The membership, the share capital and working capital also decreased in the same year.

Weavers excepting only a few do not have adequate capital resources for investment in the business. Most of them, therefore, resort to borrowing and sell their goods on retail or on wholesale basis on their own account immediately when the production is over. Government grants are, therefore, given to the artisans through industrial co-operatives or where no co-operative society exists to individual artisans under the State-Aid to Industries Rules.

Under the community development scheme one handloom weavers training centre was started at Sihora for imparting training in the improved methods of production of handloom cloth.

The high price of handloom cloth is one of the main reasons for the incapacity of the industry to withstand the market competition. The reasons for the high cost structure of the industry are manifold. Firstly, the weavers do not have adequate capital necessary for storing raw materials like yarn, sesal fibre, etc. Secondly, because of the interminable exchanges between the mill-owners and the manufacturers, the prices of yarn and dyes fluctuate whereas the price of cloth does not rise or fall proportionately. Thirdly, as the goods are to be disposed of during the year of production, the profits fall to a low level. Thus the cost of production becomes uneconomic. Fourthly, middlemen unduly dominate the scene and reap the profits by exploiting the booms and slumps of the market. However, powerlooms should be installed by separate societies and these should not be mixed up with handloom societies. While encouraging the powerlooms, the interests of handloom weavers should be safeguarded.

Oil-seed Crushing: In the past oil crushing was one of the most important cottage industries, and its importance has not significantly diminished even with the advert of milling industry on a mechanical scale. The oil-men used to cater to the requirement of oil of the entire population. Almost every village had a few persons, who used to follow it as a hereditary occupation. With the mechanisation of this industry, the oil-man found himself a weaker ingredient of the economic structure of the rural as well as urban areas of the district. Even though the ubiquitous character of the industry is intact, the economic position of the oil-man has been badly affected.

Bhandara district is an oil-seed producing area. The main oil-seeds produced are linseed, groundnut, sesamum, etc. Oil-crushing provides employment to many artisans in the district. Almost all the artisans, except a few are hereditary artisans. The main centres of the industry are Gondia, Amgaon, Pauni, Borgaon, Dawdipar, Nansari, etc. Gondia tahsil is famous for lin-seed crushing on a very large scale in the district.

Telghani constitutes the principal item of the equipment required by the oil-men. At most of the places the traditional village oil ghani run by bullocks is used, though a number of progressive oil-men have taken to the modern and improved types viz., Nutan ghani or Nutan Wardha ghani. The traditional oil ghani consists of a wooden mortar which holds seed and a wooden cylinder about 1.22 metres (4') high fitted right in the centre of the mortar with a heavy cross-beam on the top in a standing position, one end of which rests about 0.305 metre (a foot) from the ground. A semi-circular block of wood is attached to the lower part of the mortar with a piece of wood projecting and forming a right angle with the upper beam at the end near the ground. On this piece of wood a large stone is placed which is connected with the upper beam by means of ropes. As the ropes are tightened and the block rises, the pressure of the cylinder is increased. A blind-folded bullock is yoked to the upper beam. As the bullock goes round the mortar the cylinder revolves and thereby the seeds are crushed. Oil is squeezed out and falls to the bottom of the mortar, while the residue forms into a solid mass round the sides of the mortar as oilcake. The cost of a ghani is about Rs. 300 to Rs. 400.

The process of oil crushing which requires operations, such as, threshing and cleaning the oil-seeds, crushing the seeds and taking out the oil and cake is spread over a period of three to four hours. Consequently an oil-man can turn over only three ghani's a day.

Very often the oil-man takes the help of his family members for operations like cleaning and threshing the oil-seeds and marketing the oil. Some oil-men hire outside labour also. The average daily net earnings of an oil-man amount to Rs. 5 whereas a person employed by him is paid Rs. 1.50 per day.

Government have provided facilities for training the artisans in the improved methods of crushing and use of better implements. Under the Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board scheme, there were 12 oil-men's co-operative societies in the district in 1968-69. However, only one of these is working at present. The Board has so far given loans to the tune of Rs. 67,581 and grants of the value of Rs. 17,079 to these societies. The reporting society produced oil and oilcake valued at Rs. 1,02,255.65 and Rs, 16,002.13, respectively, in 1968-69. It provided (full time and part time) employment to 12 persons and paid them Rs. 6,588.47 as wages in the same year.

Tanning.— Tanning industry is found in almost all the villages in the district. The main centres of this industry are Andhalgaon Soni, Kudegaon, Karchkheda, Mohadura, Manegaon and Dawdipar villages. Raw hides and skins of dead animals, such as buffaloes, bullocks, cows, sheep and goats are purchased for tanning by tanners.

The process of tanning is accomplished by indigenous method. Cattle hides are dipped in lime water for a few hours to separate the hair, fat and flesh from it. After the hide is well soaked, hair is scrapped with a scraper and fat, as well as flesh are removed with rapi. It is then washed and soaked in a solution of babhul bark and hirda water. Soaking is repeated thrice to tan a hide thoroughly. The hide is then tied in the shape of a bag which now contains a stronger solution of babhul bark and hirda water. It is then exposed to the sun and washed again on the eighth day and dried.

Raw hides, lime, hirda and babhul bark are the chief requirements of a tanner. Babhul bark is found in plenty in the forest of the district. Tools and equipment necessary for tanning consist of lime and tanning pits, wooden mallets, rapis, aris, barrels, etc. The set of equipment cost about Rs. 250. The construction of a pit cost about Rs. 500.

The age-old process of tanning adopted by the artisans in the district hardly enables the product to compete with the leather tanned at the tanning factories, which is of a softer variety and durable. The indigenous leather, however, is considered good especially for making rough footwear. Most of the leather tanned in the district is used by the local leather working establishments.

Procurement of the working capital is the main difficulty experienced by the tanners. A major portion of the expenditure is incurred in the purchase of raw hides. Middlemen generally advance the capital which they recover from the price paid for the tanned hide they purchase from the artisans. To help the artisans to overcome these obstacles in securing finance and with a view to providing them with marketing facilities, co-operative societies of tanners and leather workers were organised in the district under the Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board scheme which extended assistance to the artisans.

Leather Working.- Leather working is one of the old cottage industries of the district and provides a source of livelihood to a number of leather workers in the district. The industry is diffused in rural as well as urban areas of the district. It produces foot-wear in common use like chappals, shoes, leather straps, belts and other goods required by the agriculturist. In towns the leather workers also prepare leather bags, purses, etc.

Leather working requires tools like stitching awls (ari), leather knives (rapi), cutting nippers, eyelet setter, sharpening stone, hammer, pair of scissors, sewing machine, wooden blocks, etc. The tools used and the process followed by the artisans are age-old and hereditary.

The raw materials chiefly consist of tanned and dyed leather, rubber soles, polish, chrome leather, etc. Tanned leather is procured from the local tanning centres in the district. Chrome leather and rubber soles are procured from the leather merchants in the district.

The artisans faced competition from the footwear companies whose products are of a superior design and finish. In rural areas the artisans work as a family unit. In urban areas they are in the employment of big establishments. Some of them combine tanning with leather working. These establishments paid wages to the artisans according to the articles produced and their craftsmanship. The market for the products is confined mainly to the district. The industry provides employment throughout the year.

The artisans have formed co-operative societies to solve the difficulties faced by them. Government have extended financial help to them in the form of loans and grants. Under the Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board scheme there were 20 co-operative societies of tanners and leather workers established in the district, of which only 12 are working at present. The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board had extended loans of the value of Rs. 20,962 and grants of Rs. 24,590  to them in 1968-69. There are also 2 industrial co-operatives in the district, having a share capital, working capital and reserve fund of Rs. 4,679, Rs. 19,044 and Rs. 753, respectively. Both these co-operatives are dormant for the last 2 years.

Pottery Making.— Pottery making was one of the important cottage industries of the district. It is commonly followed throughout the district and about 1,000 families are engaged in this industry in the district. The chief artisan is generally helped by the other members of his family. Potters are mainly concentrated in areas near the river banks. The clay found in the river beds serves as an important raw material for pottery as well as brick-making. Some of the establishments of potters are found to combine pottery with brick making.

The tools of a potter consist of a wooden or an earthen wheel (known as potter's wheel) brick kiln for baking earthen pots wooden moulds of various shapes and sizes for making clay toys pick-axes, ghamelas, etc. Red as well as black earth is used for making earthen pots. Earth is at first mixed with horse-dung and soaked in water for some time before earthen pots are finally produced. The mixture is then kneaded properly and trodden twice. The clay is then given the required shape by being pressed on the rotating wheel. The pot is enlarged and strengthened by continued handling, turning and application of fresh mud till it acquires the required shape. The pots are then dried and a solution of red chalk and black earth is applied externally. The pots are finally baked in the kiln. Rice husk, and cow-dung are spread at the bottom of the kiln and the pots are buried in rows below the husk. The kiln is set fire to and the pots are taken out after the husk and cow-dung turn into ashes. The manufacturing activity is usually in full swing during the summer season, when the labourers are not busy with agricultural operations. During the rainy season the potters are engaged in making toys, dolls and idols for the festival days.

The markets for these products, which included ghagars, gadgis, madakis, ranjan, etc., are mainly confined to the district. The demand for these products generally comes from the poorer sections of the society and hence they fetch relatively low prices. The products of the industry are delicate and are easily damaged. The potters always face the difficulty of transporting them to the market places.

Lack of adequate capital, storing facilities and age-old technique of production are the characteristic features of this industry. To enable the potters to overcome the difficulties faced by them, the Zilla Parishad has given loans to individual artisans in the district.

Brick and Tiles Making.— Just like pottery, brick making was also carried on as a cottage industry at many places in the district. There were about 2,000 families engaged in brick and tiles making. This industry mainly met the day-to-day demand for bricks arising from the construction of new houses and repairs to old ones. Where the manufacturing activity was carried out on a small scale, the production mainly catered to the local demand It is a seasonal industry practised generally by the artisans themselves. Abundant supply of water facilitates the working of this industry. The materials required were earth and ash whereas the items of fuel were coal and wood. The equipment required for brick making and tiles making consists of wooden moulds, ghamelas, pick-axes, furnace, etc. All these are available locally. A perfect mixing of clay, coal ash and water is done and the mixture is then laid into bricks and tiles with the help of the moulds. These are then dried in the sun. Baking in the furnace hardens the bricks and makes them durable.

The price of bricks varies with the season and tempo of building activity. It generally ranges between Rs. 30 and Rs. 40 per thousand bricks and averages about Rs. 20 per thousand tiles. Most of the production is sold in the local markets. During the monsoon the artisans are idle and hence work in the fields as agricultural labourers.

In 1968-69, the district had eight brick-layers co-operative societies under the Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board scheme. Of these only five were working and the rest defunct in the same year. The societies are located at Andhalgaon, Salati, Panjara, Lakhandur and Kulpa. These societies arrange for the sale of products of its members and advance loans to them. The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board had so far given a loan of Rs. 3,637 and grants of Rs. 1,000 to these societies. In 1968-69, the total production of these societies was worth Rs. 19,172 and they provided employment to 74 artisans, paying them Rs. 10,817 as wages. There were 19 industrial cooperatives of brick and tile makers as on 30th June 1969, in the district. Of these, nearly half were defunct. They provided employment to 594 workers and paid them Rs. 12,189 as wages. The share capital, working capital and reserve fund of these societies amounted to Rs. 22,101, Rs. 43,041 and Rs. 2,576. respectively in the year 1969.

Considering the availability of clay in the district, brick-laying and tiles making industry has good scope for further expansion.

Blacksmithy.— Blacksmithy was formerly a hereditary occupation and the blacksmith made and repaired agricultural implements. It was an integral part of the rural economy from ancient times. The blacksmith was formerly a member of the class of balutedars [The Baluta system, which formed part of the socio-economic structure of rural India, meant the payment of wages in kind for the services rendered by the village artisans. The system is however fast declining.]. At present this industry provides employment to a number of persons in the district and is dispersed throughout the district. ——

The materials used by the blacksmith comprise iron-sheets with gauge varying from 10 to 30, round bars and flat bars. Old tins and scrap materials are used for repair works. The blacksmiths usually own their establishment. The capital invested by an individual blacksmith ranges from Rs. 300 to Rs. 500. The tools and equipment of a blacksmith consist of anvil, furnace, bellows, sledge hammers, sandashi, files and chisels. Most of the tools are of a rough and primitive nature.

Blacksmiths in this district make articles, such as, axes, spades, furrows, sickles, hoes, axels of carts, cart wheels, frying pans, flat pans, sieves, prongs, etc. All these articles are sold in local market as there is always a ready demand for these articles. Very often the blacksmiths get orders from the agriculturists who sometimes give metal sheets or bars for making the articles. In such cases the blacksmiths get only wages for their services. Daily gross earnings of a blacksmith range between Rs. 7 and Rs. 12, An employed worker gets about Rs. 3 per day. Earnings of the blacksmith in the urban areas are slightly higher than those in the rural areas. Generally, a skilled blacksmith seldom encounters any threat of unemployment; only rarely he may face casual unemployment due to irregular supply of iron sheets and bars.

There is a blacksmithy training centre at Dhargaon in Bhan-dara block where the artisans are imparted training in the use of improved methods of blacksmithy. Similar facilities are provided by the Block Development authorities in the district.

Carpentry.— The carpenter was an important member of the baluta system which formed an integral part of the rural economy for centuries. These artisans known as Sutars, who were hereditary professionals, were engaged in making of agricultural implements, building materials and furniture. This occupation has retained its place in the district economy in spite of the far reaching changes which have occurred in the socio-economic landscape of the district. In fact with the increased pace of building activity the services of the carpenters are highly in demand. They are scattered all over the district, and every village has its own carpenter.

The forest in the district which produces quite a good quality of timber, has encouraged the development of the furniture making industry in Bhandara district.

The carpenters tools comprise wasala, patasi, ari, girmit, Whet stone, karwat, hatoda, gunya, chhani, randha, screw driver, pakad, etc. The cost of the entire set is about Rs. 150.

The carpenters mainly prepare furniture and agricultural implements, such as, plough, hoe, coultered drills (tiphan), bullock-cart, etc. Building construction also provides them with gainful employment. Besides, their services are availed of for repairing these articles. The carpenters find a demand for their articles in the local areas. The manufacturers of furniture in the district sometimes also export furniture to the nearabout towns. The daily earnings of a carpenter in the urban area range from Rs. 5 to Rs. 8; while in rural area it is from Rs. 4 to Rs. 7.

There are carpentry training centres at Wadegaon, Dhargaon, Salekasa and Yerli, where the artisans are imparted training in the use of improved methods of carpentry. Similar facilities are provided by the Block Development authorities in the district. The Government extends financial assistance to the carpenters through their co-operatives.

There was only one co-operative society of carpenters at Pauni in the district in 1968-69. The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board has given a loan of Rs. 6,000 to this society. The total production of this society was worth Rs. 3,300 in 1968-69. The society provided employment to 138 artisans and paid them Rs. 9,990.35 by way of wages in the same year. Besides, there are three carpentry industrial co-operatives in the district of which one has been registered recently and the working of which is yet to commence. The remaining two societies are operating and have provided employment to 65 members and paid them by way of wages and salaries Rs. 18,859 in the year 1968-69. The share capital, reserve fund and working capital of all these societies stood at Rs. 11,025, Rs. 6,822 and Rs. 4,526, respectively, in 1966-67. The raw material used by these societies was valued at Rs. 18,820 during the same year.

Bamboo Working.— The artisans engaged in bamboo working are found practically at every important place in the district. They are, however, mainly concentrated at Lakhani, Sakoli, Sadak Arjuni, Mohodi, Adyal, Soundad, Karanja, Dawwa and Majitpur. Household requirements like mats, winnowing fans (sups), baskets and bidi petaras (boxes) are made by them.

Bamboo which is the main raw material required for this industry is obtained from the forests in the district. The articles are made from bamboos which are of different quality, such as chiva, taqpat, chivati, etc. Each quality is used for making a specific type of article only.

All the artisans use very crude and out-dated tools which consist of koyata (sickle), knife, chisel, cutter and wooden blocks. The cost of a set of tools and equipment ranges between Rs. 20 and Rs. 30.

Baskets, mats, sups, grain containers, sifters and bidi petaras are the main articles made by the artisans. The expansion of the bidi industry and the subsequent increase in the demand for bidi petaras for packing purposes, has led to an increase in the demand for the services of these artisans and their products. The bark of bamboo from which a mat is made is also used for making baskets. The products are sold in the local markets in the district. They, however, do not bring any handsome returns to the artisans. The earnings of an artisan mainly depend upon his skill. The average daily earnings of an artisan amount to Rs. 2 per day. The occupation does not provide them with full-time employment throughout the year. In the rainy season some of the artisans are required to take recourse to agricultural labour.

There were ten industrial co-operative societies of cane and bamboo workers in the district, which provided employment to 469 artisans who were paid wages and salaries to the tune of Rs. 8,980 in 1968-69. The share capital, working capital and reserve fund of these societies stood at Rs. 21,272, Rs. 46,341 and Rs. 3,597, respectively, as on 30th June 1969. The State Government has given a loan of Rs. 7,770 to these societies. Under the scheme of Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board, there was only one co-operative society at Ghatbori working in the district which provided employment (full-time and part-time) to 80 workers and paid them by way of wages Rs. 5,598. The production of this society was valued at Rs. 1,191 in 1968-69.

Bidi Making.— Bidi making is one of the most important cottage industries in the district. It provided a subsidiary source of income to agricultural labourers who were not gainfully employed throughout the year. As it required little or no capital investment and demanded no special skill, illiterate and unskilled artisans could take to this profession. Besides, important bidi making centres, such as, Gondia, Amgaon, Tiroda and Gangazari, persons engaged in this calling were scattered in the mofussil areas throughout the district.

Generally, these workers were employed by contractors who provided them with all the necessary materials like tobacco, leaves and thread and took bidis in return. The length of the bidis varied and so did the quantity of tobacco. The wages were fixed per thousand bidis according to the artisan working in municipal and non-municipal areas. These contractors had their feeder factories where they collected bidis from workers and sent them to registered factories. They received agreed commission for their services. The owners of these registered factories usually gave a fixed quota of necessary raw materials to the middlemen and asked for a fixed number of bidis in return.

In some cases bidi making was undertaken by all the working members of a family, in their residential premises. In the rainy season, the family busied itself with agricultural operations and the tempo of bidi manufacturing slowed down. It gathered momentum after the harvest and continued to be brisk till the onset of monsoon.

There were six industrial co-operatives of bidi workers in the district during 1968-69, having a total membership of 79. The share capital, working capital and reserve and other funds of these co-operatives amounted to Rs. 3,450, Rs. 3,629 and Rs. 179, respectively, during the year 1968-69. At present, most of these co-operatives are showing signs of stagnancy.

Handpounding.— Handpounding is a traditional cottage industry being followed by artisans in the villages from generation to generation. Bhandara district being a major paddy producing area, the Khadi and Village Industries Board has taken up a programme to popularise handpounding of paddy as a regular processing industry in the rural sector. The industry serves another vital social purpose of providing gainful employment (part-time as well as full-time) to a large number of unskilled but needy persons in rural area of the district. The programme of the Board is intended to help these artisans in raising their productivity, through the use of improved implements. Improved and efficient implements for dehusking, winnowing and polishing are available at half the market price to the members of co-operative societies organised for handpounding.

There were two co-operative societies of handpounding in the district in 1968-69. Of these two, only one worked during 1968-69. The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board had given a loan of Rs. 36,760 and a grant of Rs. 1,060 to these co-operative societies. The total production of the working society was worth Rs. 32,814.48 in 1968-69. It provided employment to 14 workers and paid them as wages Rs. 1,187 in the same year.

Scheme of Service Centre: The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board inaugurated a scheme known as the Service Centre Scheme. Under this scheme, three types of units viz., Qualitex unit, Gear sheller unit and Chakki unit are granted to a village level agency. The scheme is meant to benefit the cultivators who want to process their own paddy. The implementing agency also allows the desirous families to make use of these implements on payment of nominal charges. The amount so collected is utilised by the centre for repair and replacement of parts of the implements. If an individual artisan wishes to take up handpounding industry as a source of living he is also provided assistance in the form of loan and grant for purchasing implements and to serve as working capital up to a maximum of Rs. 1,000 under the above scheme.

Khandsari or Gul Industry.— Gul industry is one of the most important cottage industries of the district. The industry is carried on in almost all the villages which produce sugarcane. The area under sugarcane in the district was 475.92 hectares in 1964-65. Sakoli tahsil occupied a larger area under sugarcane cultivation in the district. Availability of sugarcane, tadi and good demand for gul are the main factors which contributed to the growth of this industry. The industry is seasonal and works for about three months after October when the sugarcane crop is harvested.

Tools and equipment consist of power crushers or iron crushers worked by bullocks for crushing the sugarcane. Use of diesel engines, cane crushers, pans, moulders, etc., in this industry is only recent.

Sugarcane is crushed by crushers run on power or iron crushers worked by bullocks for extracting juice. The juice collected is boiled in a large open pan and for cooling, it is poured into a pit where it is solidified. The prepared cakes are then filled in bucket type moulds to get the necessary shape. Gul produced is consumed locally and is also sent to the tahsil places in the district.

Under the scheme of Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board, there were two co-operative societies of gul making in the district in 1968-69. The Board had extended loans of Rs. 37,000 and grants of Rs. 3,200 to these co-operatives in 1968-69. These societies provided employment to 10 persons and paid them as wages Rs. 545.37 during the year 1968-69. The total production of these societies was worth Rs. 23,081 during the year 1968-69.

There are at present five neera and tadgul industrial co-operatives in the district, having a total membership of 63. The share capital, working capital and reserve fund of these societies stood at Rs. 7,907, Rs. 27,483 and Rs. 8,937, respectively, as on 31st of June 1969. Government had also given a loan of Rs. 1,417 to these societies.

Fisheries.— There is a considerable scope for the development of fisheries in the district along the river banks. Similarly, construction of new dams and tanks also affords immense possibilities for the development of pisciculture. The 1961 Census recorded 4,038 persons as engaged in fishing as principal workers, of whom 3,800 were males and 238 females.

Rivers, tanks and ponds are the chief sources of fishing activities in the district. Wainganga is the main river flowing through this district and all other rivers are its tributaries, viz., Bagh, Chulband, Pangoli, Chandan and Bawanthadi. Some of them dry up during the summer. The total length of perennial rivers in the district is about 440 km. There are also about 1,000 perennial and about 14,000 seasonal tanks and ponds in the district. The water spread area provided by them is adequate for the development of fishing industry. The major carps imported from Calcutta are stocked up to augment the fish supply.

Tools and Equipment: Fishing is generally done with the help of gill nets known as tangad, cast nets called bhawan jal, drag nets or odhe jal, longlines dawan, bag nets called shitawar or jhurli and trap udan. These nets are mostly of cotton twine but nylon is also effectively used for making nets now.

Development: The commercially important varieties found in the district are murrel, dhadkya, botri, padhan, bod, nadicha, rohu, tambu, karvadi, poshti, dhoara, gane or kanheri, chela, katva, seenghan, chandni, mahaseer, kolus, magur and zinga. These varieties are however not of a fast growing type. As such under the Five-Year Plan Schemes, quick growing Bengal Carps are stocked annually in the perennial water tanks providing about 4,000 acres of water spread area for propogation of pisciculture. The varieties stocked are catla catla, rohu, mrigal and calabasu. During the Second Five-Year Plan about 29.49 lakhs of fry was stocked. The total estimated fish netted at the end of the year 1962-63 from these tanks was about 700 metric tonnes. In addition, about 20,000 fingerlings of major carps were stocked during 1962-63, in Seonibandh tank which is 45' deep and has a water spread area of about 2 square miles. Commercial fishing operations in this tank are proposed to be undertaken when the possibilities of breeding of fish in the tank are studied. A fish farm has been established at Seonibandh for research on fish culture and experiments on induced breeding. The farm has an area of 10.68 acres, and has a set of two stocking tanks, two repairing tanks, two marketing tanks and six nursery tanks. Baby fishes of major carps are also reared in this farm up to fingerling size and are then released in different perennial tanks.

Finance and Co-operation: The implementation of the fisheries development programme in the district under different schemes, encouraged fishermen to come under the co-operative fold to avail themselves of the benefits and facilities given by the department. Forty-four co-operative societies of fishermen were organised in the district up to 1965-66, many of which are in the initial stage. In 1965-66, their membership was 2,617, share capital, Rs. 77,688, working capital, Rs. 94,219 and reserve fund, Rs. 12,281. They are given financial assistance in the form of loans and subsidy for purchase of nylon and cotton twine. They are also helped to secure tanks and ponds for purposes of pisciculture, in the district.