THE PEOPLE

HINDUS

Except for the small body of Banias who follow Jainism, the Hindus of the District belong to two main classes; (1) Brahmanic Hindus who follow Brahmanic Gods; these include all Brah-mans and similar castes: they employ Brahman priests and (2) other and tribal Hindus who mainly worship non-Brahman and animistic gods.

Deities.—The religion of Brahmans is Hinduism of which they are priests and exponents. Most Brahmans belong to a sect worshipping especially Shiva or Vishnu, Rama and Krishna or Shakti or Devi.

The Hinduism of Berar in general and this district in particular is undoubtedly a religion of local origin which has been moulded and modified by external forces. Shiva, the chief deity is held by some as of Dravidian origin. Others believe that it was the inhabitant of the Western Himalayas who elevated Rudra Shiva to be their protecting deity just as Vishnu became the god of the nations on the Ganga.

The external forces which prior to the arrival of Muhamme-dans moulded or modified local religion were the Aryan element, the Buddhist and Jain religions and the neo-Brahmanic revival. Traces of the Aryan element are very faint. The various sacrificial fires or homas at various religious ceremonies appear to be a relic of the worship of Agni. The worship of the sun in the sandhya performance in the form of the recitation of Gayatri is another such relic. The indirect influence of Buddhism may perhaps be recognised among the Gosavis, Manbhavs, Gondhalis and other sects who recruit their ranks from the Shudra Castes. To the example of Buddhists and Jains is probably due the predisposition among the Hindus of Berar to the frequent canonisation of saints, a cult which in due course extended to the worship of even canonised Musalmans. The diverse elements were welded together by Brahmanic influence to some extent, but the Brahmans never had the power, even if they had the will, to make the man homogeneous.

Mahadev or His forms: The great festival in honour of Mahadev is the Mahashivaratri but at this Linga is the object of worship and although the sect of Lingayats is comparatively modern, the worship of the Linga is supposed to be intimately connected with the old serpent worship. Among the other castes Bhairoba as an incarnation of Shiva is much worshipped while among agricultural and some other castes the most popular incarnation is Khandoba. It was in his honour that in former days women used to swing themselves by iron hooks fastened into their flesh after first naming their petition to the priest. Men also drew strings of heavy carts by means of iron hooks fastened into their bodies. In many houses there is a silver image of the god, sword in hand, on horseback, before which on the Champa Shashthi day is waved a copper platter, bearing cocoanut, jaggery, turmeric and sixteen small lamps made of wheat flour. His votaries also offer him brinjals and onions, his favourite diet, which they may not use themselves before this day. The black dog of Khandoba on which he rides is also worshipped. Sunday is the day held sacred to this deity and alms are solicited on this day in his name. He is also known as Martanda, a Sanskrit name for the sun.

Devi Worship: The favourite incarnation of Devi is Bhavani in whose services the Gondhalis are traditionally enrolled. She is worshipped for the nine days, Bhavani Navaratra, which precedes the Vijaya Dashmi or Dasara. The idol is placed on a basket crowned every day with fresh flowers. The basket rests on a pot full of water and for the whole period of nine days, a light is kept burning on a stand before the image. On the 10th day, the head of the village used to slay a buffalo in remembrance of the victory of Devi over the demon Mahishasura. An unmarried girl also is placed beside the image of the Devi on this day and worshipped, the ceremony probably being a relic of the left-handed ritual of former days. Bhavani is also worshipped on the new and full-moon day.

Maruti: Maruti or Hanuman is another deity whose worship in this district is universal. He is represented as a monkey. He is the guardian of villages and all Hindus celebrate his birth day on the full day in Chaitra every year. Maruti is invoked at the time of birth, marriage and death and on all occasions when the necessity of any help for the success of an undertaking arises.

All the three gods described above are believed to represent deities of other than Aryan origin and are more popular than those of Aryan origin such as the incarnations of Vishnu, of whom two are recognised as the most important viz., Rama and Krishna. The latter is better known as Balaji. A great festival to commemorate their birthdays is held annually. They are known as Ramanavami and Gokulashtami.

Ancestor Worship: The growth of ancestor worship into the worship of saints and heroes is exemplified in the local religion. Some castes e.g., Telis keep small metal images made in honour of their ancestors. Food is offered to the dead man's spirit after every funeral. The Brahmanic custom is to offer to the ancestors on the anniversary of their death. In this district, some castes omit this ohservance and only offer their oblations, which may be nothing more than a handful of food or a little ghee thrown into the fire on two fixed days in the year. The first is the third day in the month of Vaishakh known as Akhaji or Akshayatritiya; the second is the Pithori Amavasya and it is one of the occasions on which barren women worship the attendants of Durga in the hope of offspring.

Cases of hero-worship are not very frequent. Only ancient heroes like Rama, Krishna and Hanuman are worshipped. But the list of saints is continually on the increase. They are supposed to act as intercessors between mortals and the unseen powers or at any rate to possess some mysterious influence for good or for evil which can be propitiated by sacrifice and offering. Pilgrimages are made to the tombs of these saints. When an ascetic or a man widely renowned for virtue has acquired the name of a sadhu or a saint, he is often consulted much during his life time and a few lucky prescriptions or prophesies gain him a reputation for working miracles. Many large fairs have taken their origin from the annual concourse at the shrine of these sadhus.

Ghosts: All classes of people have a firm belief that the spirits of the dead are inclined at times to trouble the living. The spirits are classed according to the status of their owners at the time of death. A Jhoting is the spirit of a child who was not invested with the sacred thread; a munja is that of a child who wore the thread but died before marriage. A bhut is an adult male ghost. Female ghosts are known as chudel, dakin, hadal or manvin. A Brahmasamandha or Brahmarakshasa is the ghost of a miserly Brahman. It is believed that a munja spirit will cause the death of one child after another who is named after him and the terrified parents will call their next offspring a blockhead or a dunghead (Dhondya or Ukirdya) in the hope that the angry spirit may be appeased. If a child is sickening from this cause, its parents will give a dinner at a banyan tree to unmarried boys; or he may tie a silken cord round the child's waist and prepare an offering of red lead, limes, betelnut and leaves, cocoanut and dates. At night he may call a Kumbhar or other exorcist who brings with him a small drum. After worshipping it, he plays on the drum as he sings invocations to each unmarried man who had died in his family. He will sprinkle the mouth and eyes of the afflicted person with water over which mantras have been repeated. After being repeatedly questioned, the evil spirit explains who he is and how he entered it. More sprinkling and mantras, with an occasional tap from the exorcist's wand, decide the spirit who promises to depart if he receives the offering due to him. This is made. The affected person takes an old shoe between his teeth and goes to the abode of the spirit and thence to a pipal tree, at the foot of which he is supposed to fall senseless and to be free from the incubus. A nail is driven into the tree to prevent the spirit's return; or if the exorcist can manage it, he shuts up the spirit in a bottle which is buried deep underground. Should the foot or any single limb be affected, the ceremony of dora-bandhan is frequently performed. A piece of string is suspended over a wood fire, mantras being repeated all the while; the smoke when it touches the string indicates the effectual mantra. The string is then bound around the sufferer's foot and the regular offering to evil spirits follows. If it be a manvin or the spirit of a married woman, who is troubling one of her own sex, an image of her is made and worshipped. Often, in order to appease her, before a marriage, a bodice-piece, bangles, red and yellow turmeric, tooth powder, a betel-nut and leaf are presented to a married woman who comes from her own house to receive the offerings, bathes and is then led back. If a Jhoting be troublesome, a patch of ground at the side of a river or road or at the village burial place is plastered over with cow-dung and on the smooth surface, the figure of a man is sketched in red lead. To this grains of udid and jowar coloured yellow, red and turmeric with white oleander flowers are offered; little lamps of wheat flour containing linseed oil are lit and scents and camphor are burnt. Limes, dates, almonds, plantains and lumps of turmeric, five of each and a cocoanut are then offered. After this, the worshippers return home and bathe.

Demon Gods and goddesses: These spirits of evil are rarely remembered beyond a second generation and are very inferior to the demon gods and goddesses, represented by the rude heaps of red daubed stones which so frequently meet the eye by the roadside under the trees. At the head of these demons stands Bhairava or Vetal king of the bhuts, and Mhasoba or Mahishasur, the haunter of running waters who every now and again drags under and destroys a victim or two and through fear of whom a mot is never worked from a stream. The Chief female demons are now nearly identified with Devi. There is Meskai whose shrine is visited by Kunbis, Salis and Bhois on the eve of a wedding. There are Mari Mai and Mata Mai, goddesses of Cholera and Small-pox: Panchvai and Satvai, who are propitiated on the fifth and sixth day after the birth of a child, but these are common to people all over Maharashtra. There are the seven asuras, water spirits like Mahishasur, but who trouble chiefly the famale sex. An offering similar to that made to a Jhoting is made when one of these demons, in revenge for its haunt being disturbed, has seized a victim; but to the fruits and flowers must be added the blood of a cock or a kid, slain at the shrine. Sometimes, the Gondhalis also are called in to sing through the night.

Tree Worship: Tree worship is also prevalent as well as the use of trees in worship. The pipal tree as being the abode of the munja spirit is worshipped every Sunday evening. The umbar, the tulas and the bel are sometimes the objects of daily worship, particularly by women. Bel leaves, with rice grains, sandal paste and flowers are offered to Mahadev daily before taking a meal. The Shami tree, the apta tree and the agara plant are worshipped on the Vijayadashami day. The palas is worshipped by Kunbis on the pola day and its branch is considered as particularly fruitful in the Medhajanana rite during the upanayana samskara among Brahmans. The avala tree is an object of worship after the rains and under its shade a community meal is taken. The banyan tree is worshipped on the full moon day of Jyeshtha by women when long life for their husbands is prayed for. When the marriage booth is erected, the astrologer insists on twigs of mango, shami, jambul, apta, and swallo-wort for being hung in corners and in the centre. After death too the tulsi leaf is considered as indispensable for being put in the mouth of the dead body.

Serpent Worship: The worship of the Cobra seems not to obtain among the hill tribes as much as among the pastoral and menial castes of the plains. Dhangars, Kolis, Berads, Banjaras, Mahars, Mangs, Chambhars, etc., are the chief serpent worshippers. A living Cobra is worshipped only when it is brought and taken from place to place by the garudis by offering milk to it. Sometimes, a metal or wooden image of a Cobra is substituted or a snake is fashioned out of clay. Generally the worship is performed at an ant-hill and if a cobra is seen it is taken as a good omen. Twigs of nim tree are fixed in the ground around an ant-hill; a yellow thread is wound round them and offerings of grain, jowar, and milk are deposited within the circle. The simplest form of worship is pouring of milk on an ant-hill, but the ceremony, whether simple or complex, is performed by the people without the aid of Brahmans.

Metempsychosis: The belief in metempsychosis is general. The good deeds done in the present life are balanced against the evil and the nature of the dying man's next life is determined by the preponderance of one side or the other. Sex alone remains unchanged. At the moment of death, a person will single out that form into which his soul will pass from amongst 84 lakh of possible existences. His relatives in their anxiety to learn his future fate, seek his resting place on the tenth night after death and there sprinkle the ground with rice or jowar flour, smoothing it with a brass plate. They place boiled rice and water in a vessel to satisfy the dead person's wants and cover the whole with a basket, sometimes leaving a lamp burning. In the morning they come betimes and look for marks in the flour which shall indicate to them the animal into which his soul has gone. This observance is more common in the lower castes but is not unknown among the Kunbis who, however, substitute red turmeric for flour. The Musalman Bhils, notwithstanding their conversion, keep up the custom, but postpone this performance till the 40th day after death.

Sorcery and Witchcraft: The belief in sorcery and witchcraft is also widespread. Those through whose agency the evil comes or by whose influence it is removed are feared rather than respected; their power is. however, supposed to cense as soon as their teeth fall out.

Worship of implements of handicrafts: One more phase of Hindu beliefs claims notice. Their pantheistic piety leads them to invest with a mysterious potentiality the animals which are most useful to man and even the implements of a profitable trade. The Kunbis worship their bullocks at the pola festival and their ploughs on the Dasara day. The Dhangars bow down to their sheep on the full moonday of Ashadha. Bankers reverence their books at the time of Diwali and clerks their stylus. The Teli worships his oil-mill and his worst fear is that after his death his soul should pass into one of his own bullocks. Artisans do homage to their tools and the implements of their respective crafts. The bricklayer worships his trowel and the Kaikadi his pruning hook.

Omens.—At the commencement of a journey or an enterprise, Gancsh should be invoked according to the Brahmans. Ganesh is, however, popularly supplanted on such occasions by the observance of omens, which are much the same for all castes, though to this rule also there arc exception. The sight of a corpse or flesh is lucky omen except with the Lads and Sonars. To Gosavis and Bairagis, salt, earth, and a potter are inauspicious but not to other castes; while a Brahman with a headcloth on his head and his caste marks painted brings good luck, misfortune is the result if he should be encountered bare-headed. A married woman is lucky to meet; a widow is inauspicious. A pot full of water is a good thing to see; an empty pot is not so. If a man has a twitching in his right eye the omen is good but not so if it occurs in his left eye. With a woman the case is reversed. A sweeper bearing night soil is a lucky man to meet, a Teli with an oilpot is unlucky. Should a spider cross one's hand it is a good omen, but house lizard falling on one's body is bad. A single sneeze when a person is speaking denotes good luck to him, but an additional sneeze will change it. A deer, blue-jay, peacock or ichneumon on the left hand are all harbingers of good as are also mongoose, a cow with a calf and an ox, but if one's path is crossed by a jackal or a cat or a dog is heard yelling or an owl hooting are bad forebodings. A wild parrot perching on the head or shoulder, the sound of joy music, dreaming a good dream or meeting a corpse borne by four men are all omens of good import while a lamp falling, a man's pagdi or a woman's toe rings coming off or ring-dove entering the house are events fraught with evil consequences. If a ring dove enters the house, the occupants leave it for three days; on the third day a cow is brought into the house and food and alms are given to Brahmans and after this it becomes habitable.

Religion of an ordinary Hindu.—At the Census of 1901, it was suggested that an attempt should be made to explain the actual working or popular belief of an ordinary Hindu, his standards of right or wrong and his belief as to what will happen to him if he disregards them. Mr. A. D. Chinoy, the author of the Berar Census Report, 1901 records the results of his observations as follows which hardly admit of any change even to this day: "The religion of an ordinary Hindu of Berar, who may be taken to be a person no way learned in the ancient lore of his religion nor affected by the march of modern thought, is theism. He has, however, a vague notion of his religion. He is both a monotheist and a polytheist. He believes in the existence of one Supreme God whom he regards as almighty, omniscient, all-pervading and the creator and destroyer of this universe. He also believes in the existence of many subordinate orders of gods. His ancient religion of the Vedic period which consisted of the worship of the Sun, the fire, the water or Varuna, is nearly unknown to him. Celebration of sacrifices to fire has dwindled down to a very small offering called Vaishwadeva in the houses of Brahmans. Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu and others who may he regarded as accretions of the Puranic period are held by him in reverence. He hears their praises sung in the kathas or recitations of purans and kirtans or sermons, the text of which is interspersed with music. The deities round which his daily life revolves are the village Maruti and his own family tutelary deities worshipped evervdav in the houses. The temple in the village he visits daily, if religiously minded and does ceremonial worship there only on special occasions. He observes fasts the most popular of which would appear to be Ekadashi. Pilgrimages form an important item in his creed, but are not regarded as compulsory. Banaras, Rameshwar. Pandharpur and Mahur are some of the sacred places to which he would like to go, if circumstances permit. Feeding Brahmans and giving presents to them are pious acts, necessary on certain occasions and considered meritorious at all times. Life in all the sentient forms is more or less sacred to him. In the lower animals, the cow commands his veneration and affection. Among plants, tulsi, pipal, bor and bel are most worshipped. To argue the pros and cons of a question is not his forte and he will not readily engage himself in a controversy with the representative of another religion. To him every religion is true and good for him who is born in it. This attitude though seemingly passive has important consequences on his daily life and makes him a peaceful and desirable neighbour. As a first and most obvious result, an ordinary Hindu is usually tolerant of other religions and their observances to such an extent that he, not unfortunately, is found to worship the foreign deities himself. He willingly admits that gods worshipped by other religions are also representatives of his own, so there is no cause to quarrel or disagree.

"He believes that a very strict account is kept of his good and bad actions and that he is as sure of getting his reward or punishment, very often in this world but generally after death. His belief in a region beyond the grave is very firm. There he will meet with his deserts and after enjoying the bliss of heaven or enduring the tortures of purgatory, he will be sent back into this world in the incarnation of man or beast, according as he has made good or bad use of his time in this life. Thus expectancy of rewards and danger of punishments, in other words, hopes and fear constitute the working belief which controls most of his actions. He believes firmly in dreams, auguries, miracles, meteors, comets and a number of other matters, which are usually called supernatural. Portents to him are very important and must be carefully attended to before undertaking anything. Astrology, as an interpreter of these, plays a great part in his life. Choice of the bride or bridegroom, the dates ot marriages, and other important events of life are fixed in consultation with its dictates. To him the censure of being called superstitious means nothing. He thinks that there is an internal and unknown reason for all the so-called superstitious observances and when the foreigner blames or laughs, he returns the compliment by pitying the latter.

An ordinary Hindu is ignorant of any theory or theories of morals, though unconsciously he learns many moral lessons from the Puranic stories, which he hears in kathas from religious preachers. However, his working standard of right and wrong is that he should avoid injury to any living being as much as he can and if he is led into a bad act, either by mistake or by stress or circumstances, an expiatory ceremony called prayashchitta, done through proper repentence, would be potent in wiping off sin and restoring him to favour with God. To save life or bring about a marriage or other good thing, he believes, he is permitted to depart from truth. Fear of law and disapprobation of society no doubt induce him to be virtuous. These, however, work rather as checks on wrong-doing than as motives to virtue. He believes that he will get no worldly happiness in this life or that is to come, if he does not do right and will be punished in this world as well as in his future existence. But these notions are often regarded as hypothetical and do not sufficiently control his actions, because the rewards and punishments do not follow immediately and are not traceable to their origins. He sees that a wrong-doer sometimes flourishes and a pious man is often miserable. This to some is staggering and leads them to enter into an imaginary compromise with the eternal powers, by doing evil whenever self-interest requires it and then seeking expiration through prayashchitta".

Rituals and ceremonies.—Life for a Hindu is a round of rituals and ceremonies and most of the Hindu customs and traditions consist of ritualistic practices related to various religious observances known as samskaras or sacraments. According to the Hindu Dharmashastra, the individual has to pass through many samskaras which are really sharira samskaras for these are intended to sanctify the body (sharira) beginning from the moment the foetus. is laid (garbhadhana) to the death (antyesti) of a person. The number of the Samskaras differs according to different communities. Some say there are 16 which are obligatory and 24 which are optional, called nitya and naimittika, respectively. These are usually conducted under the direction of Brahman priests who on their part say that they use Vedic texts for Brahmans and Puranic texts for others. Of late, even the 16 of these sacraments are reduced to half a dozen or even less in most of the Hindu communities and are observed in respect of birth, thread-girding, marriage, pregnancy and death. A samskara is usually preceded by a symbolic sacrifice (homa).

Pregnancy and Child-birth: Garbhadhana or the foetus laying ceremony which has to be performed as signifying consummation of marriage had social significance when child-marriages were in vogue. At present the ritual is symbolically included in the marriage ceremony without any bustle.

The grvhyasutras have prescribed for the benefit of the pregnant woman a number of observances of a magico-religious nature and believers in the efficacy of Vedic rights follow them to varying extent. The pumsavana samskara or the male-making rite may be performed during the third month of the wife's pregnancy, so that the deities governing the sex of the foetus would be propitiated and a male issue assured.

The jatakarma samskara may be performed at the birth of the child. Here the father has to touch and smell the child, utter benedictory mantras into its ears expressing his wish that it may be endowed with long life and intelligence. However, the first popular ritual in an infant's life is the panchavi and shashthi, i.e., the ritual observed on the fifth and sixth day after birth. On the fifth day, a configuration of a betel-nut, rice, flowers, sandal paste and a sickle or a sword arranged on a pat in the lying-in room in the name of panchavi or the mother fifth is bowed to by the mother with a prayer to save the child from the attacks of evil spirits. On the sixth day, a blank sheet of paper and a red pen and an ink-stand are set on a stool and worshipped as Mother Sixth, i.e., Satvai and a few friends are feasted. Though these worships have no Vedic basis as a samskara, they are observed among all castes including the Brahmans.

In the seventh month of the first pregnancy of a woman is performed the ceremony known in this district as dohojan which is the corrupt form of Dohale Bhojan. An auspicious day is fixed by the village Joshi and on this day, the pregnant woman is dressed in green clothes. Preceded by music she is taken through the several roads of the village. She then visits Maruti's temple and bows down before the image. After bathing, she is dressed in a green lugade, a green choli and green glass bangles and is seated on a cradle fixed in the courtyard of the house. Five kinds of food, i.e., malti, gahule, walwat, shivaya and shev are sewed in five cups and covered with plates. The pregnant woman is asked to remove the plate from any of the cups. If she uncovers the cup containing malti, it is believed that a girl will be born to her; if the cup containing gahule is uncovered it is considered that she will have a son. After this the assembled women are treated to a dinner and the pregnant woman receives presents of new clothes from them. A pregnant woman should not cross the paibund (ropes tied to the bind legs) of a mare. If she does so, her delivery will be seriously delayed because a mare gives birth to a foal after twelve months. She should avoid the sight of a corpse and remain at home during an eclipse. Mang women act as midwives. A broom, a shoe and a knife are placed under the cot in the lying-in room. Also a pot containing cow's urine with some nim leaves in it is placed just at the entrance of the room and any one entering it, has to sprinkle a few drops of it on his feet. A few leaves of cotton plant and a little sand are also kept on both sides of the door to drive away evil spirits.

When a delivery is delayed and the woman's life is supposed to be in danger, all the male members of the village stand in a row from the house of the woman to the side of the village river. A relation of the woman then fills a ghada with river water and passes it on to the person who stands next to him. The ghada is thus passed from hand to hand without being placed on the ground until it reaches the woman's house. A cupful of water from the ghada is given to the expectant woman which hastens the delivery. This water is called maleche pani or hat pani. Another device is to give water in which a gold mohur of Akbar's reign has been dipped. On the birth of a first male child the father, if well-to-do, dresses himself in new clothes, enters the lying-in room with honey filled in brass cup and sees the face of the child reflected in honey. This is perhaps done to bring all good qualities to the boy, because the honey is composed of the essence of several flowers. The navel cord is cut and buried with the placenta in the compound of the house. The mother and child are bathed in lukewarm water. Castor oil mixed with honey is administered to the child three times during one day and a half. The mother suckles the child on the evening of the second day. The mother is given harira (jaggery cooked with dry ginger) for the first five days. She is then given sanja or wheat flour cooked in water with ghee and gur.

The mother remains impure for five or six weeks. After the expiry of this period she may cook food for the family, but the period varies a good deal according to the position in life, sometimes it being as short as even 12 days. A child born with feet first is called payalu and is believed to be in special danger from lightening. To avert this calamity the child is bathed in water in which a cobbler has dipped old shoes for repair. It is believed that a payalu has the power of seeing treasure in the earth and people put lamp black in his eyes and ask him to tell the whereabouts of hidden treasure. A payalu also by touching the part with his right foot will remove pain in the back.

A barren woman desiring to get a child is said to resort to some of the following devices:—

(1) Eating the navel cord of a new born child.

(2) Killing a scorpion and eating it with gur.

(3) Walking round Maruti at dead of night.

(4) Making a mock baby of kneaded flour with a big hole in the stomach. It is placed (with a lighted lamp in it) where four roads meet. If a woman having children walks over it, it is believed she will lose her -children one by one and these children will be reborn in the womb of the barren woman who performed this magical ceremony.

(5) Performing the balirana ceremony. The stone which is used for grinding chillis, etc., is covered with a new bodice cloth and a necklace containing golden beads is tied to it. On the 12th day when the new born child is placed in the cradle, the barren woman stands on one side of it and the woman who gave birth to the child on the other side. The latter hands over the stone dressed like a child to the former and it is believed that by doing so the sterility of the woman is removed. The birth of a boy after three girls is considered inauspicious and to avert the impending misfortune, the father of the boy climbs to the roof of the house and makes a loud noise to frighten away the evil spirits.

Naming Ceremony: The namadheya rite is performed on the 10th day or twelfth day after the birth of the child when it is given a name. Popularly the ceremony is known as barse and its obser-vance varies according to caste. In higher castes, a Brahman is usually called in and he proposes certain names considered auspicious in view of the astrological circumstances of child birth. The familv selects one of these names and sometimes more are given, one of which is kept for common use and the other for ceremonial use. A horoscope is usually cast, the name proclaimed, pansupari is distributed and drums beaten. In some castes, a ceremonial cradling is held by the women in the afternoon and the naming celebrated. On this day, the child receives gifts from relatives in the form of clothes, gold and cash. The karnavedha (piercing of the ear-lobes) ceremony may take place the same morning or may be postponed to the sixth or twelfth month. If the male child is subject to a vow, his right nostril is pierced and a gold ring put into it. The 12th day is also important in that on this day the mother, who since giving birth to the child was considered unclean is proclaimed to be clean. On this day the confinement room is thoroughly cleaned and this is the first day on which the menfolk could go to see the mother and child.

Annaprashana: Among better placed Hindus, a ceremony called annaprashana celebrates the first feeding of the child. It may take place in the fifth or sixth month after birth but some castes perform the ceremony for the male child in the seventh month and for a female one in the sixth month. An auspicious day is chosen and relatives are invited who come with gifts for the child. Food which is usually rice boiled with milk and sugar is put in the mouth of the child with a golden ring or a silver spoon. In some castes, the maternal uncle officiates at this function.

Javal: Then comes the hair cutting ceremony known as javal. As a samskara, it is known as chudakarma or the first tonsure of hair for the sake of dharma and is performed in the first or third year or at any age according to the tradition of the family. At present the rite is gone through prior to the upanayana among some castes; some other castes are much more keen to observe it as a ceremony, believing that the hair of the child when it is born is impure and must be removed with social celebration.

Upanayana: The thread-girding ceremony or munja as it is popularly called is prescribed for all Hindus claiming to belonging to the first three varnas. The ceremony is also called upanayana or vrata bandha. After this ceremony a boy is supposed to live with his teacher and study the vedas and other sciences. Until this ceremony is performed he is not really a dvija and is not bound to observe the caste rules and restrictions.

A boy (kumara) undergoes the upanayana at the age of eight or after eighth, eleventh or twelfth years from birth being considered proper time for the ceremony. There are also rules regarding the muhurtas (auspicious times) to be determined according to the birth stars of the boy. The ceremony always takes place between morning and noon, never after mid-day.

Preparations may begin a few days before the thread girding day. Drummers and pipers to play at the ceremony are engaged. A booth or perch is built in which a bahule (decorated platform) is constructed. Invitation cards are sent to relatives and friends. Kinspcople and intimate friends ask the boy to kelavana or congratulatory feast and make presents to him. A formal invitation (akshat) ceremony is held a day or two before the thread-girding when the local temple of Ganapati is visited and the god is prayed to be present at the thread ceremony. Personal invitations are given to local relatives and friends.

On the early morning of the lucky day, musicians start playing on the drum and pipe. The ghana ceremony is gone through with the help of not less than five suvasinis. Prior to the upanayana ceremony proper, the usual propitiatory rites are gone through with the same procedural details as before the performance of an auspicious samskara. These are Ganapati and matrikapujana, punyahavachana and devaka pratishtha i.e., worship of Ganapati, and the matrika deities, the holy day blessing and installation of devaka. The ceremony of chaula (shaving of the boy's head), if it was not performed in childhood is gone through. The boy is then bathed and taken to the dining hall. Boys called batus who are girt with the sacred thread but not married, and usually of the same age as that of the boy are seated in a row and fed. While they eat, the boy's mother sitting in front of the batus seats her son on her lap, feeds him and herself eats from the same plate. The ceremony is known as matribhojana or mother's meal. It is the last time that the boy and his mother eat from the same plate. This over the boy is taken to the barber who shaves all the locks except the topknot. The boy is then bathed and made ready for the upanayana ceremony.

The boy and his parents enter the booth and take their seats on the three pats (wooden low stools) arranged on the bahule. The father begins the ceremony by giving some cash to make up for the neglect in failing to perform the samskaras at their proper time. The father then sits on a pat with his face to the east while the boy stands before him facing the west and priests hold between them a curtain marked with svastika in vermilion. Priests recite mangalashtakas (auspicious verses) and guests throw akshatas (whole rice grains mixed with kumkum) at the boy and his father. At the proper muhurta (auspicious moment) the priests stop chanting, musicians redouble their notes, the curtain is pulled to the north and the boy lays his head at the feet of his father. The father blesses him and seats him on his right. Guests are then regaled with, pan, perfume and rosewater and sweet drink. It is now getting customary for the guests to make some present to the batu (boy) on this occasion.

The upanayana ritual now begins. A vedi (earthen altar) traced in front of the father, blades of darbha (sacred grass) spread over it and a homa (sacrificial fire) is kindled on it. Offerings of ajya (ghee), sesamum and seven kinds of samidhas (sacred fuel sticks) are made on the sacrificial fire. With folded hand the boy then approaches the acharya (head-priest) with a request to make him a brahmachari (Vedic student). The acharya grants his request. He daubs a cotton string in oil and turmeric, ties it round the boy's waist and gives him a langoti (loin cloth) to wear. He then rolls a yellow pancha (short waist cloth) round the boy's waist and white one round his shoulders. Another cotton string daubed with oil and turmeric and a bit of deer skin passed into it is hung on the boy's left shoulder. He hands over to him a consecrated yajnopavita (sacred thread) and a danda (staff) of palas. The boy is asked to pass between the fire and his father and sip three achamanas and repeat texts. He then goes back between the fire and his father, and takes his seat. The preceptor then gives the boy a coconut and taking him by the hand goes out of the booth and both bow to the sun. On their return to the seats the preceptor takes the boy's right hand and asks him to state his name and to say whose brahmachari he has become. When the boy mentions his name and says he is his preceptor's brahmachari, the preceptor lets go the boy's hand, takes him round the sacrificial fire and seating him by his side drops nine offerings into the fire. He then says to the boy "You have now become a brahmachari; you must observe religious exactness; you must sip achamana before taking food; you must not sleep during the day; you must control your speech; you must keep alight the sacred fire; and cleanse your mouth after taking food. " The boy then sitting to the north of the sacrificial fire bows to the preceptor and begs to be initiated into the mysteries of the sacred verse; the boy and the preceptor or the father are covered with a shawl and the preceptor thrice whispers the sacred gayatri into the boy's right ear first syllable by syllable, next phrase by phrase and then the whole verse.

The shawl is taken away and all return to their seats and give blessings to the Vedic student and the father.

The preceptor then makes four offerings of samidha to the fire and then the boy makes an offering of one samidha and wipes off his face thrice with words purporting " I anoint myself with lustre and may Agni and Indra bestow on me insight, offspring and vigour. " The preceptor concludes the sacrifice with the final oblations and sprinkles sacred water over the head of the boy and in all directions. Money presents are then given to the priests who bless the Vedic student and the father.

At noon, the preceptor teaches the boy to recite madhyanha sandhya (midday prayer) and in the evening the sayam sandhya (evening prayer). The ceremony of bhikshavala (hegging alms) is then held. The boy and his relatives go in procession to the temple of Ganapati with music and company and on return, the boy is seated near the altar. To his mother who approaches him there, the boy says " Bhavati bhiksham dehi" (Lady, be pleased to give alms) and holds a cloth wallet before her. The mother blesses him and puts in the wallet some sweet balls, rice and gold or silver coin. Other married women follow suit to each of whom the boy addresses in the same manner and each presents him some sweet balls and money. The contents (eatables) of the wallet go to the priest who gives part of the sweetmeats to the boy and keeps the rest for himself.

The whole of the upanayana ceremony, now-a-days is wound up within a day. Formerly when it used to last for four days, each day the boy was taught to offer his morning, midday and evening prayers and made to worship the sacred fire kindled on the first day. The last rite of the upanayana ceremony is medha-janana. A small square earthen mound is raised and a palas branch planted in it. The boy pours water round the plant and prays medha, the goddess of mind, to give him knowledge and wealth. The boy is now a brahmachari, an unwed Vedic student and from now on for some years should learn the Vedas at the feet of his guru and on completion of the studies should undergo samavartana (return) ceremony. But according to current custom, samavartana or the sodmunj as it is called follows immediately after upanayana. The boy makes over to the priest the loin cloth, the staff, the deer skin, etc. and puts on new clothes, a jari or silk cap, a pair of shoes, takes an umbrella and sets our as if on a journey to Banaras. Usually, the boy's maternal uncle persuades him to give up the journey and promises to give him his daughter in marriage so that the boy may end brahma-charyashrama and become a grihastha (householder).

cremate their dead. Some backward communities cither bury or

Death rites: Hindus who follow Vedic or Puranic rites usually burn. Tribals have their own peculiar funerary customs. Sanyasis, when they die, receive a ceremonial burial called samadhi. Infants who have not cut their teeth and those persons who have died of small-pox or leprosy are buried. Bones and ashes of the dead are generally thrown into the sea or a river. Sometimes part of them are preserved for being consigned to the waters of a sacred river like the Ganga.

When a person is on the point of death the nearest kin sits close to the dying man and comforts him assuring him that his family and affairs will be well taken care of. A small piece of gold is laid in his mouth and a few drops of Ganga water are poured into it with the addition of tulsi leaves. When life is extinct the body is removed from the bed or cot and laid with the head to the north on the ground and washed with cowdung water. Holy water is sprinkled on it and wreath of tulsi leaves is placed round the neck. The chief mourner has to undergo a purificatory bath, while the priest chants some mantras. If the deceased is an ascendant, the chief mourner and other mourners have to shave their heads (except the topknot) and moustaches. Having done this, he offers oblations of rice (pindas) in honour of the dead. The corpse is bathed and wrapped up in a new dhotar or lugade according as the deceased is a man or a woman. If the deceased is a female with her husband living, she is arrayed in a yellow cloth and with some of the ornaments in her customary use, decked with flowers, rubbed with turmeric paste and kunku marks are put on her brow. These honours are not shown to a widow. All the relations present, men and women bow to the dead. Finally the corpse is put on a ladder like bier of bamboo and borne by four persons on their shoulders to the cremation ground, the priest and the chief mourner (who holds the sacred fire for burning the dead body) walking in front of the bier. Women do not accompany a funeral procession. All persons attending the procession are bare-headed. Half way to the cremation ground the oblation of rice is repeated. They are offered a third time on reaching the cremation ground. With the help of the live charcoal brought along, a fire called mantragni is prepared, the corpse is laid on the pyre and the chief mourner ignites it with the fire. Immediately after the body is burnt, the chief mourner goes round the pyre thrice with a trickling water pot (in which the fire was brought) and finally throws the pot backward over the shoulder spilling the water over the ashes, to cool the spirit of the dead which has been heated by the fire. He then pours water mixed with sesamum and the rest of the mourners follow suit. The party goes back home only after the body is completely consumed. During the first ten days, all persons belonging to the gotra of the deceased observe mourning (sutak).

Obsequies: The shraddha and funeral obsequies are the only ceremonies performed for the salvation of the ancestors. A special ceremony called Narayana bali may be performed for those that have died of accident; but in the case of one dying childless, no departure from the ordinary rites takes place. The funeral obsequies are performed during the first 13 days after death. Oblations of rice are offered every day in consequence of which the soul of the deceased is supposed to attain a spiritual body limb by limb till on the thirteenth day it is enabled to start on its further journey. Oblations are also offered on the 27th day and sometimes thereafter on the day of the death, once in every month for a year of which the six monthly and the bharani oblations i.e. the shraddha performed on the 5th of the dark half of the month of Bhadrapada are essential; and after a year has elapsed, the oblations of the first anniversary day are celebrated with great solemnity. The annual shraddha is performed on the day corresponding to the day of death in the latter half of the month of Bhadrapada. Where the family of the deceased can afford it, a shraddha is also performed on the anniversary day. While performing the shraddha for one's deceased father, offerings are also made to other ancestors and to deceased collaterals. Women dying within the lifetime of their husbands have special oblations offered to them during their husband's lifetime. This takes place on the 9th of the pitripaksha and is called Avidhava Navami day.

Marriage and Morals.—Hindu Dharmashastra considers that it is obligatory on every person to marry as according to it, vivaha (marriage) is one of the sharirasamskaras (sacraments sanctifying the body) through each of which every man and woman must pass at the proper age and time. Though marriage is thus prescribed for all, the institution as such is hedged in with several rules and restrictions which fall under two main heads, viz., endogamy and exogamy.

A Hindu may not marry outside his caste or his particular sub-caste which according to social custom is considered endogamous. He is confined for the choice of a wife within this group. Outside the caste or the sub-caste within which a man must marry arc set of further sub-divisions which prohibit the marriage of persons related through males which are called endogamous groups. Marriage is also prohibited within certain degrees of relationship. Marriage within the same gotra is prohibited. In the twice-born castes, marriage is usually avoided between persons related on the woman's side within three or sometimes five degrees. The marriage of the children of two sisters is looked down upon, but that of a sister's son and a brother's daughter is not only allowed, but also favoured among many Hindu communities including some Brahman sub-castes. Hypergamy relates to the social rule by which a woman should be married to a man who is either her equal or superior in rank, wealth and social status. Taking more than a wife was not prohibited till a few years ago, but in recent years under the influence of modern liberal ideas, most Hindu communities have been monogamous and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 has completely reformed the law relating to Hindu marriage all over India and has made monogamy compulsory among all classes of Hindus.

It was customary to have girls married before they reached the age of puberty, but the Sarda Act prohibited those marriages, although breaches of it are not few and not strictly frowned upon. Adult marriage has always prevailed among Banjaras, Andhs and Rajputs. Every family has to observe some sort of kulachara in this district and the following two may be noted as specimens as recorded by the old Buldhana Gazetteer.

After a marriage is over a trench about eight feet by two feet is dug in front of the house. It is filled with fuel and burnt. After the flames have subsided and while yet the ashes are hot, the parents and the wedded couple, headed by the family priest, have to walk over the ashes bare-foot. Another kulachara called swamya is also very common among some classes. After the marriage is over, a widow whose hair is shaved is called to dinner. She is made to wear a green sadi, a choli and the nose ring. A patch of red powder is affixed to her forehead. The meaning of this ceremony is not known.

The custom of widow remarriage prevails among the agricultural communities and perhaps, more or less, among all except Brahmans, Banias and highest families of any caste. Divorce by mutual consent and deed of separation is also permitted and the divorced woman marries again. Such unions are called pat marriages, but they are quite reputable and their off-spring is legitimate.

In Hindu religious books eight forms of marriage are enumerated. Of these only two are in vogue at present viz., brahma and asura. Conforming to the former form of marriage, a hunda (dowry) is paid by the bride's parents to the bridegroom. The respectable name for it is varadakshina. This generally prevails among the so-called higher castes. Among the so-called lower castes, the bride's parents usually take what is called dej (bride price) thereby conforming to the asura form. The monetary aspect in the settlement of a marriage may assume diverse forms which are devices to circumvent the demands of extortionate hunda which is now prohibited by law.

Social usage in relation to Hindu marriage has been considerably affected by various legal enactments passed right from 1833 when the regulation prohibiting sati was proclaimed. A common form of civil marriage for all communities in India was provided by the Special Marriage Act III of 1822 which made it possible for any Indian of whatever caste or creed to enter into a valid marriage with a person belonging to any caste or creed, provided the parties registered the contract of marriage, declaring inter alia that they did not belong to any religion. This Act was amended by Act XXX of 1923, making it possible for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains (but not Christians, Jews, Parsees and Muhammedans) to declare their religion and yet get their marriages registered. The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 as amended by Act XIX of 1946 prohibited marriages of boys under 18 years of age and girls under 14. The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act XXVIII of 1946 validated marriages between parties belonging to the same gotra or belonging to different sub-divisions of the same caste and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 which abrogates and modifies all past legislation has made Hindu marriage now strictly adult and monogamous and done away with the caste and gotra restrictions which limited the field of marriage. It has set down definite conditions under which a decree of nullity and further of dissolution of marriage could he obtained.

As marriage from the Hindu point of view created an indissoluble tie between husband and wife, divorce was not known to Hindu Dharmashastra. Neither party to a marriage could, therefore, divorce the other unless divorce was allowed by custom as among the lower castes. The Indian Divorce Act of 1869 provided inter alia for dissolution of marriage but it applied only to cases where " the petitioner or respondent professed the Christian religion." However according to Sections 10 to 13 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 reliefs by way of judicial separation, declaration of nullity of marriage and divorce are recognised.

When a Hindu marriage is about to be settled, the priests from both sides in common consultation fix the day and hour for the auspicious event and it is the priest belonging to the bride's side who generally officiates with his assistants.

The essential marriage rituals which obtain are Vagnishchaya, Simantapujana, Madhuparka, Antarpat, Sutraveshtana, Pani-grahana, Lajahoma, Saptapadi, etc. In interpretation of these injunctions from the grihyasutras, the following ceremonies are gone through in a popular way:—

Akshat: When the wedding day is fixed, invitations by way of printed letters are sent round beginning with the house gods. On an auspicious day the relatives of the bride and the bridegroom go together in a procession to the temples of Ganapati and Devi to invite the god and the goddess and offer them coconuts, betel-leaves, kumkum etc. The priest accompanying the procession invokes the god to be present at the wedding and ward off all evil. Next a married pair from each party go round inviting friends and relatives.

Simantapujana: In the evening previous to the marriage day the ceremony of Simantapujana is held. The parents of the girl with their relatives go to the bridegroom's house with gifts. There, they first worship Ganapati (represented by a betel-nut), Varuna (represented by a waterpot), a lamp and the earth; they wash the feet of the bridegroom and offer him a dress. Next the bride's mother washes the feet of the groom's mother; and fills her and her female relations' laps with wheat and pieces of dry coconut kernel. Assembled guests are presented with betel-leaves and betel-nuts and Brahmans with money-gifts.

Vagnishchaya : Vagnishchaya or the ceremony of betrothal takes place at night. The bridegroom's parents and their relatives go to the bride's house with a dress and ornaments for the bride. The fathers of the bride and the groom exchange a coccanut and embrace each other. The bridegroom's father presents the bride with the ornaments and dress brought for her. After distribution of betel-leaves and betel-nuts they disperse.

Halad (turmeric) ceremony: In the morning of the wedding day, the bride is rubbed with turmeric paste at her house by some married ladies on both sides, the remaining portion of which is taken to the groom's house where he is rubbed with it in a like manner.

Devakpratishtha or gods-installing: Before the ceremony begins, the bride with her parents is bathed with hot water by some unwidowed women. After changing clothes and bowing to the house-gods and elders, the bride's parents begin the ceremony which consists of the worship of the planets, called Graha-makha and Ganapati, Varuna and Avighna-Kalasha. The last is an earthen jar daubed with white and red colours. It contains turmeric roots, betel-nuts, a copper coin and sweetmeats and its mouth is covered with an earthen lid tied to it with a piece of cotton thread passed round several times. It is prayed to ward off all evil. This ceremony takes place at the bridegroom's house also.

Gauripujana is performed only by the bride. She worships in the house the goddess Parvati or Gauri and sits there till the wedding time, praying the goddess with words, " Gauri, Gauri, grant me a happy wifehood and long life to him who is coming to my door. "

Rukhvat: When the wedding time draws near, a party from the bride's side takes several dishes of sweetmeats to the bridegroom's house and serves them to the bridegroom and his relations. The bridegroom is worshipped and presented with articles of dress by the bride's father. The priest then asks the bridegroom to bow to the house-gods and elders. The bridegroom garlanded, dressed in new clothes with a finger mark of lamp black on his either cheek, rides a horse or is seated in a car. He is taken in a procession to the bride's house, the females walking just behind him and the males behind the females.

Mangalashtaka: When the procession reaches the bride's house, cooked rice mixed with curds is waved on the bridegroom's face. Next, the bride's mother washes the feet of the bridegroom's mother who returns to her place as she must not hear the marriage verses. The bridegroom is then led to the marriage booth, where the priests lay two low stools of wood and ask the bride and the groom to stand on them facing each other. They are each given a garland of flowers to hold and are told to look at the lucky cross on the curtain (svastika) and pray to their family gods, mangalakshatas (reddened and unbroken rice) are distributed among the guests. The priests standing on either side of the curtain start chanting mangalashtakas, auspicious benedictory verses and they and the assembled guests and relatives throw the reddened rice at the pair at the end of each verse. When the chanting of verses is over, the curtain is withdrawn to the northern side amidst a noise of clapping, drums and pipes. This is done just at the auspicious moment fixed. The eyes of the boy and the girl meet. The bride first puts the garland in her hand round the groom's neck and the groom follows. They then throw the mixture of rice grains, etc., over each other's heads. Guests, relations and friends are entertained. Each is given a flower bouquet, a sprinkle of rose water, a smear of attar, and pan-supari. They are regaled with spiced milk or drinks. Money is distributed to Brahman priests.

Kanyadana: It is an elaborate rite by which parents of the girl hand over the bride to the bridegroom's care and request him to treat her well during her life-time.

Marriage Sacrifice or Lajahoma: The pair is led to the altar where fire is kindled. The priest asks them to worship the fire and throw parched rice and ghee into it. Next, he asks them to take mutual oaths that they will be each other's partners, during their lifetime for weal or woe. These oaths are taken in the presence of the fire, the earth, the priest and gods.

Saptapadi : Seven small heaps of rice are made on the altar and a betel-nut is placed on each of them. The priest recites mantras and the bridegroom lifts the bride's right foot and places it on the heaps in succession. When the seventh heap is crossed the marriage is complete.

Sutraveshtana and Kankanabandhana: The priest passes cotton thread round the pair twelve times which is then taken off and divided into two parts. The pair are made to fasten these on each other's wrists.

Sadi Ceremony: The bride is presented with a sadi and choli and her lap is filled with cocoanut, wheat and some fruits by the priest and some suvasinis.

Sunmukha: The bridegroom's mother puts on the bride's person all the ornaments made for her and looks at her face. She presents the daughter-in-law with new clothes and puts sugar in her mouth.

Zal or Airani pradana: An airani or zal which is wickerwork basket containing several gifts such as cocoanuts, betel-nuts, fruits, cooked food, etc., is presented by the bridge's father to the groom's mother and other relatives. The basket is held on the head of the person to be honoured and while some water is poured on it, the priest on behalf of the bride's father says: " We have given you this good-natured daughter well-nourished and healthy and request you to treat her kindly."

Varat: The procession, both of the bride and bridegroom in which the latter takes the former to his house in a carriage or on horseback with music follows. Males and females of both sides accompany them.

Lakshmi pujana: The Varat is followed by Lakshmi pujana that is the worshipping of the goddess of wealth by the bride and the bridegroom at his house.

Naming: The maiden name of the bride is changed. She is given a new name by which she is formally known afterwards in her husband's family. Betel packets and sugar are distributed to the party assembled and money to Brabmans. A ritualistic closure to the ceremony is put whereby the deities that had been invited before the ceremony began are bid a formal farewell and the marriage booth dismantled. Socially, exchange of feasts ends the ceremony.

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