The Gazetteers Department

The sections from Mediaeval Period onwards have been contributed by Dr. B. G. Kunte, M.A., Ph.D. (Economics), Ph.D. (History), Joint Editor, Gazetteers Department and edited by Shri P. Setu Madhava Rao, M.A. .I.A.S. Executive Editor and Secretary. A part of the material was supplied by Prof. Dr. M. S. Agaskar. Ram Narain Ruia College, Matunga, Bombay.]

Early Times

AS NO EXPLORATION OR EXCAVATION OF ANY SITE IN THIS DISTRICT has yet been undertaken, it is not possible to give any account of the pre-historic period of it. With the advent of the Aryans we get some light on the past history of this region. It was then covered by a thick jungle, which extended from the Central India to the Deccan. Agastya was the first Aryan who crossed the Vindhya and fixed his residence on the bank of the Godavari. This memorable event is commemorated in the mythological story which represents Vindhya as bending before his guru Agastya, when the latter approached him. The sage asked the mountain to remain in that condition until he returned from south, which he never did. Agastya was followed by several other sages who established their hermitages in different regions of the south. The cluster of hermitages on the bank of the Godavari was called Janasthana to distinguish it from the surrounding uninhabited forest country. The sages were constantly harassed by the original inhabitants of the region who are called Raksasas in the Ramayana. "These shapeless and ill-looking monsters testify to their abominable character by various cruel and terrific displays. They implicate the hermits in impure practices and perform greatest outrages. Changing their shapes and hiding in the thickets adjoining the hermitages, these frightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees. They cast away their sacrificial ladles and vessels; they pollute the cooked oblations, and utterly defile the offerings with blood. These faithless creatures inject frightful sounds into the ears of the faithful and austere hermits. At the tune of the sacrifice they snatch away the jars, the flowers and the fuel and the sacred grass of these sober-minded men [Miur's Original Sanskrit Texts, quoted in the previous edition of the "Nagpur District Gazetter"]."

In course of time a large kingdom was founded north of the Godavari by Vidarbha, the son of Rsabhadeva. His capital was Kundinapura in the Amravati district of the country which has since then become known by his name. Agastya married his daughter Lopamudra. Agastya is ' the Seer' of some hymns of the Rgveda His wife Lopamudra is also mentioned in the Rgveda I, 179, 4. The country became well known in the age of the Brahmanas and the Upanisads in which it is frequently mentioned. The Ramayana in the Uttarakdnda states the story of king Danda [Ramayana, Uttarahanda cantos 80 f] in whose time Vidarbha was devastated by a violent storm. Danda was a son of Iksvaku and grandson of Manu. He ruled over the country between the Vindhya and; Saivala mountains from his capital Madhumanta. He led a voluptuous life and, once upon a time violated the daughter of the sage Bhargava. The sage then cursed the king that his whole kingdom would be devastated by a terrible dust storm. The whole country between the Vindhya and Saivala mountains extending over a thousand yojanas was consequently turned into a great forest which since then came to be known as Dandakdranya. It was in this forest that the Sudra sage Sambuka was practising austerities. As this was an irreligious act according to the notions of those days, Rama beheaded him and revived the life of a Brdhmana boy who had died prematurely. The place where Sambuka was beheaded is still shown on the hill of Ramtek, about 27 miles from Nagpur [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXV, pp. 7 f].

The central part of the Deccan was then divided into several-countries known by different names. Thus, the region to the north of the Godavari now included in the Aurangabad district was known by the name of Mulaka. This country together with its capital Pratisthana is mentioned in Pali literature [Cf. Suttanipata, Parayanavaggo, Vatthugatha, 5, 2]. To the north of it lay the country of Rsika, now called Khandes [C. I. I., Vol. V, pp. 123 f]. To the east of Rsika was Vidarbha which has already been described. Along the southern bank of the Godavari extended the country of Asmaka (Pall, Assaka), which comprised the modern Ahmadnagar and Bid districts. Later, this region came to be included in the country of Kuntala, which extended far to the south. It included what is now known as the Southern Maratha Country as well as North Karnataka and the Simoga and Citaldurga districts of the old Mysore State. In an inscriptional passage [Mirashi, Studies in Indology (S. I.) Vol. I, p. 9. n. 4] the upper valley of the Krsna is said to be included in the Kuntala country. In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th cen. A.D.) Pratisthana on the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country [Udayasundarikatha (G. O. S.) PD. 21 and 83]. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharastra. The Aihole inscription [Ep. Ind., Vol. VI, pp. 1.f] (7th cen. A.D.) speaks of three Maharastras comprising 99,000 villages which probably comprised Vidarbha, Western Maharastra and Kuntala In later times Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kanarese country now included in the Mysore State. It is described as as a seven-and-a-half-lakh province. The Early Calukyas of Badami and the later Calukyas of Kalyani ruling over this territorv were known as Kuntalendras or lords of Kuntala. In earlier days, however, the districts of Kolhapur, Satara, Solapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid, which are now Marathi-speaking, were included in Kuntala. As we shall see later, the early Rastrakutas, who were ruling over this territory were known as Kuntalesvaras (rulers of Kuntala).

Coming to historical times, we find that all this territory was included in the Empire of Asoka. No inscription of the great Emperor has yet been found in this region as it has been discovered in Vidarbha [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. I, pp. 109 f], but his seventh and thirteenth rock edicts mention Rastrika-Petenikas and Bhoja-Petenikas respectively. Many scholars take Petenikas mentioned in these edicts as referring to the residents of Pratisthana (modern Paithan in the Aurangabad district). But D. R. Bhandarkar would prefer to take the word to mean 'hereditary'. Be that as it may, Rastrikas were undoubtedly the rulers of this region, who came to be known later as Maharathis.

Satavahanas

Soon after the death of Asoka, this region declared its independence. A new dynasty which derived its name from its founder king Satavahana rose to power with its capital at Pratisthana (modern Paithan). It received support from the local rulers called Maharathis, with whom it formed matrimonial alliances. This dynasty is called Andhra in the Puranas [D. K. A., pp. 38 f], but it first rose to power in Western Maharastra. This is indicated by its earliest inscriptions which are found in the caves at Naneghat near Junnar and at Nasik. Its earliest coins issued by king Satavahana have been found at Aurangabad and in Vidarbha. In later times it extended its rule to Andhra as shown by its later inscriptions and coins found in that region. The Puranas call it Andhra evidently because it was ruling in that country when the Puranic account was compiled in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Though king Satavahana was the founder of this family, he is not mentioned in the Puranas. The first king of the Andhra, (i.e., Satavahana) dynasty mentioned in the Puranas is Simuka (Srimukha) [The Puranas give his name variously as Shishuka or Sindhuka. Ibid., p. 38; but the correct name in Prakrit is Simuka (Sanskrit, Shrimukha) given by a Naneghat inscription. Ibid., p. 38, n. 17], who is also known from a relievo statue of his in a Naneghat cave. We do not know the extent of his kingdom, but it is surmised to have spread at least from Junnar to Pratisthana (Paithan). When he ended his rule, his son Satakarni was probably a minor and so his brother Krsna ascended the throne. He has left an inscription in a cave which he got excavated at Nasik for the Buddhist monks [Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, pp. 93 f]. The next ruler of the dynasty was Satakarni I, who is also known from a relievo figure now mutilated in a Naneghat cave [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. III, p. 46]. He married Naganika, the daughter of the Maharathi Tranakayira, who also was represented by a relievo statue in the same Naneghat cave Satakarni seems to have extended his rule over the whole of the Deccan and even carried his arms north of the Narmada. King Kharavela of Kalinga, who was his contemporary is said to have sent an army to the west, not minding Satakarni, who is probably this very ruler. When the army reached the river Kanhabenna, it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rsika. This river is usually indentified with the Krsna but the identification is not plausible, for the Krsna flows not west but south-west of Kalinga (Orissa). It is more likely to be the river Kanhan, which flows about 10 miles from Nagpur. Rsika is, of course, Khandes as already stated. There was no actual clash of arms on this occasion, but two years later, Kharavela probably penetrated further west as he claims to have received submission from a number of the Rathikas and Bhojakas, who were probably Satavahana feudatories.

Satakarni performed the Rajasuya and Asvamedha sacrifices (the latter twice), which probably commemorated his important victories or supremacy in the Deccan and, as such, had political significance. He performed several other Srauta sacrifices such as Agnyadheya, Aptoryama, Dasaratra, Trayodasaratra, Angirasatriratra, Satatiratra and Gavamayana, all of which were marked by munificent gifts of horses, elephants, land and karsapanas. They are recorded in a large, but now sadly mutilated, inscription in a cave at Naneghat [A.S.W.I., Vol. V. pp. 60 f]. The Bid district was undoubtedly included in the dominion of Satakarni I.

Satakarni I left behind two sons, Vedisri and Saktisri who are mentioned in the aforementioned Naneghat inscription. Vedisri, who succeeded him, is described as a very brave prince whose army was always victorious and who became the lord of Daksinapatha (Deccan [Mirashi, S.I., Vol. I, p. 123]). He was succeeded by a number of rulers who are named in the Puranic lists, but about whom they furnish little information except their reign-periods which also vary in different Puranas and even in the manuscripts of the same Puranas. But one name among them is noteworthy. It is that of king Hala, the reputed author of the Gathasaptasati, a unique collection of seven hundred Prakrt verses descriptive of the social, religious and economic life of the period [Ibid, Vol. I, pp. 76 f]. Hala flourished in the first century A.D.

Some years after Hala's reign, Maharastra was conquered by the Saka Ksatrapas. Nahapana, a Saka Ksatrapa probably appointed by the contemporary Kusana Emperor, was ruling over Konkan, Poona, Nasik and some other districts of Western Maharashtra as also some portions of Central India as far north as Ajmer. The Bid district also was probably under his rule, though we have so far no definite evidence of this. Vidarbha was under the rule of another Ksatrapa as disclosed by a pillar inscription recently discovered in the Bhandara district. The Satavahanas were therefore obliged to leave Western Maharastra and Vidarbha and repaired to the southern parts of their dominions, but soon Gautamiputra Satakarni retrieved the fortunes of his family. He made a daring dash into Vidarbha and occupied Benakata or the Wainganga district. Thereafter, he invaded Western Maharastra and defeated Nahapana somewhere in the Nasik district. This is shown by his inscription in one of the Nasik caves wherein he is called Benakataka-svami or the lord of Benakata (Wainganga district) [Ep. Ind Vol VIII, p. 71]. He probably extended his rule to a large part of the peninsula as his chargers are said to have drunk the waters of the three oceans. The following provinces are specifically mentioned as comprised in his dominion: Rsika (Khandes), Asmaka (Ahmadnagar and Bid districts), Mulaka (Aurangabad district), Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti (Eastern and Western Malva), Kukura (South-eastern Rajputana), Suratha (Kathiavad) and Aparanta (Konkan). That his empire extended much further is shown by the description that the mountains Setagiri (near Nagarjunikonda), Sristana (Kurnul district) and Mahendra (between the Godavari and the Krsna), were situated in his kingdom [Ibid Vol. VIII, pp. 60 f].

After defeating Nahapana, Gautamiputra Satakarni called back the silver coins of the Saka Ksatrapa Nahapana and restruck them. The Jogalatembhi hoard contained more than 10.000 silver coins so counter-struck [F. B. B. R. A. S., Vol. XXII, pp. 223 f]. He himself issued a large number of potin coins with the figure of the Elephant on the obverse and the Ujjain symbol on the reverse. In the hoard of potin coins found at Tarhala in the Aokla district, out of 1,200 decipherable coins, as many as 573 were of Gautamiputra [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. III, p. 37].

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by Vasistiputra Pulumavi, who also ruled over an extensive kingdom, but seems to have lost some northern provinces like Akaravanti to the Ksatrapas. He struck some silver portrait coins which show that he had an aquiline nose and his features indicated grim determination [F. N. S. I., Vol. XIV, pp. 1 f]. He was succeeded by his brother Vasisthiputra Satakarni, who married the daughter of the Saka Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman. Among his successors the most noteworthy is Yajnasri Satakarni, whose inscriptions and coins have been found over a large area. They show that he ruled over an extensive kingdom stretching from Konkan in the west to Andhradesa in the east. He issued among other types the ship-type potin coins indicative of his rule over the maritime province of the Coromandal coast [Mirashi, S.I., Vol. III, pp. 17 f].

Vakatakas

Within about fifty years after Yajnasri Satakarni, the rule of the Satavahanas came to an end in Circa A.D. 250. Several small kingdoms arose in the extensive territory which was previously under their rule. The Abhiras rose to power in Western Maharastra. An inscription of the Abhira king Isvarasena has been discovered in a cave at Nasik [Mirashi C.I.I., Vol. IV, pp. 1 f]. The Vakatakas established themselves firmly in Vidarbha. A Saka family founded by Mana, which was previously subordinate to the Satavahanas declared its independence and ruled in the southern parts of the former Hyderabad State [Mirashi S.I., Vol. III, pp. 56 f].

Pravarasena I, the second king in the Vakataka dynasty, was a powerful and ambitious king. He performed one Rajasuya and four Asvamedha sacrifices and extended his empire in all directions. He may have conquered the northern part of Kuntala comprising Poona, Ahmadnagar, Satara, Solapur, Bid and some other districts in the Deccan though definite proof of this is lacking. He had four sons, who, the Puranas tell us, all ruled over different kingdoms. Two of these are so far known—(1) Gautamiputra, whose descendants ruled over north Vidarbha from their capital Nandivardhana (Nandardhan near Nagpur) and (2) Sarvasena, who ruled over south Vidarbha from Vatsa-gulma (modern Basim in the Akola district) [Mirashi C.I.I., Vol. V, pp. XX f]. Where the remaining two sons were ruling is not known. Perhaps, one of them was ruling over north Kuntala including the Bid and other districts. This branch has left us no records probably because it was soon overthrown by the early Rastrakutas of Manapura to whose history we shall now turn.

Early Rastrakutas

The history of this royal family has been unfolded during the last few years [Mirashi S.I., Vol.I, pp. 178 f]. From three copper-plate grants, which have been discovered in Southern Maharastra we get the following genealogy: —

Mananka, the progenitor of the family, flourished in Circa A.D. 400. He founded Manapura, which he made his capital. He is described in one of the grants as the ruler of the Kuntala country. As stated before, Kuntala was the name of the upper Krsna valley in ancient times. The places mentioned in one of the grants can be identified in the Satara district. These Early Rastrakutas were, therefore, ruling over Kolhapur, Satara and Solapur districts. Their capital Manapura is probably identical with Man, the headquarters of the Man taluka of the Satara district.

These Rastrakutas sometimes came into conflict with the Vakatakas of Vidarbha. The Pandarangapalli plates of Avidheya state that Mananka defeated the rulers of Asmaka and Vidarbha. On the other hand, an inscription in Ajanta Cave XVI states that the Vakataka king Vindhyasena (i.e. Vindhyasakti II) defeated the king of Kuntala, who was evidently of this Early Rastrakuta family.

From certain passages in the Kuntalesvaradautya, a Sanskrt work ascribed to Kalidasa, which have been cited in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara, the Srngaraprakasa and the Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja and the Aucityavicaracarca of Ksemendra we learn that the famous Gupta king Candragupta II—Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa to the court of the lord of Kuntala. Kalidasa was not at first well received there, but he gradually gained the Kuntalesa's favour and stayed at his court for some time. When he returned, he reported to Vikramaditya that the lord of Kuntala was spending his time in enjoyment, throwing the responsibility of governing the kingdom on him (i.e., Vikramaditya). This Kuntalesa was probably indentical with Devaraja, the son of Mananka. Through the influence of Candragupta II, the two royal families of the South, viz., the Vakatakas and the early Rastrakutas were soon reconciled with each other [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. I, pp. 3f]. Later, Harisena, the last known Vakataka king, raided Kuntala and exacted a tribute from its king. It is noteworthy that in the story of Visruta included in the Dasakumaracarita, which seems to have had a historical basis, the king of Kuntala appears as a feudatory of the Emperor of Vidarbha [Ibid., Vol I, pp. 165 f]. After the downfall of the Vakatakas, these early Rastrakutas gained their independence.

Calukyas of Badami

The Calukyas of Badami rose to power in the first half of the sixth century A.D. The Badami stone inscription of Pulakesin I, who is the first independent ruler of this dynasty, is dated in A.D. 543. He made Vatapipuri (Badami) his capital and performed the Asvamedha and several other Srauta sacrifices. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I. He made some conquests in South India and is described as 'the knight of destruction' to the Nalas (of the Bastar district), the Mauryas (of Konkan) and the Kadambas (of Vanavasi in North Kanara).

When Kirtivarman I died, his son Pulakesin II was probably a minor. So his younger brother Mangalesa succeeded him. He defeated Buddharaja, the Kalacuri king, who was ruling in North Maharastra, Konkan, Gujarat and Malva, and also Svamiraja of the Calukya family, who was ruling over the Revati-dvipa (modern Redi in Konkan) [Mirashi, C. I. I., Vol. IV].

Mangalesa's reign ended in disaster and he lost his life in a civil war with his nephew Pulakesin II. Just about that time the Calukya kingdom was invaded from the north by one Govinda, who probably belonged to the aforementioned Early Rastrakuta family. Pulakesin adopted conciliatory measures in dealing with him as he was a powerful king [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. I, p. 188]. His descendants do not, however, seem to have held Southern Maharastra for a long time; for Pulakesin soon annexed both the Southern and the Northern Maharastra and extended the northern limit of his Empire to the bank of the Narmada. That he ousted the Rastrakutas from Southern Maharastra is shown by the Satara plates of his brother Visnuvardhana, which record the grant of a village on the southern bank of the Bhima [Ind. Ant., Vol. XIX, pp. 303 f]. The Early Rastrakutas of Manapura thus disappear from history in the first quarter of the seventh century A.D. The Asmaka country including the district of Bid was also annexed to the Empire of Pulakesin II.

Pulakesin II obtained a resounding victory over Harsa, the lord paramount of North India. Thereafter he assumed the title Paramesvara (Emperor). He defeated the rulers of several countries such as North Konkan, Kosala (Chattisgad), Kalinga (Orissa), Pistapura (Pithapuram) and Kanci (Canjeeverum). He made the Colas, the Keralas and the Pandyas his allies. He became thus the undisputed lord of South India [Ep. Ind., Vol. VI, pp. 1 f].

During his reign the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Maharastra. He has left us the following graphic picture of the country and its people: "The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies, relentless. If they are insulted, they will risk their lives to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemy a warning; then, each being armed, they attack each other with spears. If a general loses a battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him with women's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself. Each time they are about to engage in conflict, they intoxicate themselves with wine, and then one man with a lance in hand will meet ten thousand and challenge them to fight. Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, which rushing forward in mass, trample every thing down, so that no enemy can stand before them. The king, in consequence of possessing these men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the Ksatriya caste and his name is Pulakesi [S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (pubr. Susil Gupta) Vol. IV, pp. 448 f]."

Pulakesin was killed in battle at Badami in Circa A.D. 642 by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, who conquered Vatapi (Badami) and assumed the title of Vatapikonda.

During the reign of Vikramaditya II, a descendant of Pulakesin II, Gujarat was invaded by a formidable force of the Tajikas (Arabs). The Navasari plates of Avanijanasraya Pulakesin, a prince of the Gujarat Calukya family, give a graphic description of this battle. The Arabs had already defeated the Saindhavas, the Kacchellas, the Cavotakas, the Surastras, the Mauryas and the Gurjaras and were attempting to penetrate into the Daksinapatha, but Avanijanasraya (Pulakesin) inflicted a crushing defeat on the invaders. The Calukya Emperor then honoured Avanijanasraya with several titles, one of which was Anivartaka-nivartayitr (the repellar of the unrepellable) [Mirashi, C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. lxiv].

Kirtivarman II, the last of these Early Calukyas, was defeated by the Rastrakuta prince Dantidurga some time before A.D. 754, when he issued his Samangad plates. Kirtivarman continued to rule for a few years more but he had lost the paramount position in the Deccan.

Rashtrakutas

Dantidurga was the real founder of the Rastrakuta Imperial power. His Ellora Cave inscription mentions five ancestors beginning with Dantivarman, but we know nothing about their exploits. The family probably belonged to the Aurangabad district where its earliest records have been found. The earlier members of the family were probably feudatories of the Early Calukyas of Badami. Dantivarman made extensive conquests. The Ellora cave inscription records his victories over the rulers of Kanci, Kosala, Kalinga, Srisaila, Malava, Tanka and Lata, but these do not all seem to have resulted in the acquisition of new territory. His war elephants are said to have rent asunder the banks of the Mahanadi, the Mahi and the Reva. Though there is much exaggeration in the description of his conquests, there is no doubt that he conquered Karnataka, Maharastra, Vidarbha and Gujarat. His capital was Mayurakhandi which has not yet been definitely identified.

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krsna I, who completed the former's conquests and shattered completely the Power of the Early Calukyas. He was not only a great conqueror but also a great builder. He got the great Siva temple at Ellora originally called Krsnesvara but now known as Kailasa cut out of solid rock. It is one of the noblest monuments of India. A contemporary inscription tells us that the great architect who excavated it was himself surprised to see it and despaired of repeating the feat.

The Rastrakuta family produced several great conquerors, who boldly invaded north and south India and achieved memorable victories. Dhruva (A.D. 780—793) was the first among them. He defeated both the Gurjara-Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala who were contending for supremacy in North India and pressed as far as the Doab. Since then the two sacred rivers Ganga and Yamuna began to appear on the Rastrakuta banner.

Govinda III, the son and successor of Dhruva, proved to be a still greater conqueror. After obtaining an easy victory over the Ganga king Muttarasa ruling in Gangavadi, he led victorious campaigns in Central and Northern India. He first defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara prince Nagabhata and his ally Candragupta in Central India and then routed Dharmapala of Bengal, who had espoused the cause of Cakrayudha of Kanauj. He marched victoriously to the north until his horses drank and his elephants plunged themselves into the spring waters of the Himalayas. He then returned to the Narmada and marching along the bank of the river, he conquered the Malava, Kosala, Kalinga, Vanga, Dahala and Odra countries. He then spent the rainy season at Sribhavana (modern Sarbhon in Gujarat) and afterwards marched with his forces to the bank of the Tungabhadra. Using Alampura (or Helapura) on the bank of the river as his base, he led his campaigns against the Keralas, Colas, Pandyas and Pallavas. Even the king of Lanka submitted to him, sending statues—one of himself and the other of his minister—to his camp at Helapura [Mirashi, S.I., bol. II, p. 211].

A copper-plate grant of Govinda III was found at Dharur in the Bid district. It is dated in the Saka year 728 (A.D. 806) and records the donation of the village Anahe situated in the visaya (district) of Dharaura and bounded by the villages of Aivaccha, Dhani, Vauji and Ananta. The villages can be identified in Bid district. Dharaura is evidently Dharur and Anahe is Aneganv about 14 miles south-east of Dharur. Aivaccha, Dhani-grama, Vauji-grama and Ananta-grama are respectively identical with Avasganv, Dhaneganv Bavaci Kaij and Anandganv [This is under publication in Epigraphia Indica]. Several other grants of Govinda III have been found in Vidarbha.

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Sarva-Amoghavarsa I, who was a man of peaceful disposition, but whose reign was full of troubles. He shifted his capital to Manyakheta. He had to fight with the Eastern Calukyas of Vengi, the Gangas of Gangavadi and his own relatives in Gujarat. He loved and encouraged Science and literature, and treated all religions with equal reverence. He voluntarily retired from public administration to engage himself in religious pursuits. On one occasion he offered a finger of his hand to the Goddess Mahalaksmi of Kolhapur to ward off a public calamity [Ep Ind., Vol XVIII pp 248]. Such instances are rare in the history of any country.

Another noteworthy king in the Rastrakuta family was Indra III, the great-grandson of Amoghavarsa I. Like his illustrious ancestors Dhruva and Govinda III, Indra also led victorious campaigns in North India. He followed the route of Bhopal, Jhansi and Kalpi in the course of his invasion of Kanauj, the Imperial capital of India for more than three hundred years. At Kalpi his army was encamped in the courtyard of the temple of the Sun-god Kalapriyanatha, well-known to Sanskrtists as the place where all the plays of the Sanskrt dramatist Bhavabhuti were staged [Mirashi, S. I., Vol. I,pp. 35 f]. His horses crossed the Yamuna at Kalpi and then marched on Kanauj which he completely devastated. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala fled to Mahoba to seek the help of his Candella feudatory Harsa. Indra III's northern campaign was a memorable event unparalleled for its brilliance in the history of the Rastrakutas.

Recently a grant of Indra III, made on the occasion of his coronation, has been found at Jambaganv in the Gangapur taluka of the Aurangabad district. It is dated in the Saka year 836 (A.D. 915) and records the donation of the village Khairondi near Pratisthana. It is identical with the village Khirai near Paithan. The boundary villages Nandauraka, and Pippala can be identified in its vicinity. They are respectively identical with Agar Nandur, and Pippalvadi [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 257].

Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsa II, but he died within a year and was followed by his younger brother Govinda IV. The latter was known for his liberality and rightly had the biruda Suvarnvarsa (the gold-rainer). On the occasion of his coronation he donated six hundred agrahara villages and three lakhs of gold coins to Brahmanas and eight villages, four lakhs of gold coins and thirty-two lakhs of silver coins (drammas) to temples [Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, pp. 36f]. Recently, another copper-plate grant of his, dated in the Saka year 851 (A.D. 929), has been discovered at the village Andura in the Akola district of Vidarbha [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 223 f]. It records the donation of the village Elauri (modern Erali near the Nandur station on the Central Railway). Most of the boundary villages can be identified in its vicinity.

The Rastrakutas of Manyakheta and the Kalacuris of Tripuri were matrimonially connected and their relations were generally cordial. But in the reign of Govinda IV they became strained. The Kalacuri king Yuvarajadeva I espoused the cause of his son-in-low Baddiga—Amoghavarsa III, the uncle of Govinda IV, and sent a large army to invade the Rastrakuta dominion. When it reached the Payosni (modern Purna), a pitched battle was fought near Acalapura between the Kalacuri and Rastrakuta forces in which the former became victorious. This event is commemorated in the Sanskrt play Viddhasalabhanjika of Rajasekhara, which was staged at Tripuri in jubilation at this victory [Mirashi, C.I.I., Vol. IV, pp. lxxviii f].

The Rastrakuta feudatories who rose in rebellion against Govinda IV deposed him and placed his uncle Baddiga—Amogha varsa III on the throne. He was a man of quiet nature and spiritual temperament, who left the administration entirely to his ambitious and able son Krsna III. Like some of his illustrious ancestors Krsna even as yuvaraja, led an expedition in North India and captured the forts of Kalanjara and Citrakuta. He succeeded his father in A.D. 939. He then led an expedition against the Colas and defeated them in a sanguinary battle at Takkolam in the North Arcot district. He next led his victorious arms to Ramesvaram, where he built two temples. Hearing of his resounding victories, the kings of Kerala, Pandya and Ceylon submitted to him. He also placed his own nominee on the throne of Vengi. He became thus the lord paramount of the whole of South India.

Later Calukyas

The Rastrakuta power became weak after the death of Krsna III. Within eight years his large empire crumbled like a house of cards. Taila II, the founder of the Later Calukya dynasty, who was a Mahasamanta of the Rastrakutas, suddenly came into prominence. He defeated and killed in battle Karka II, the last Rastrakuta king, and captured his capital Manya-kheta. He had to fight against the Colas, the Pandyas and the Paramaras. The Paramara king Vakpati-Munja planned to invade the Calukya dominion, but his wise minister Rudraditya advised him not to cross the Godavari which was the boundary between the Calukya and Paramara dominions. Munja did not heed his advice and was taken captive by Tailapa. He was placed in a prison and was waited upon by Tailapa's sister Marnalavati. He fell in love with her and foolishly disclosed to her the plan of his escape. She communicated it to Tailapa, who is said to have made him beg from door to door and then beheaded him [Merutunga, Prabandhachintamani (Ed. by D. S. Shastri), pp. 30 f].

Among the successors of Tailapa I, the most famous is Vikramaditya VI, the founder of the Calukya-Vikrama Samvat. He ascended the throne in A.D. 1076. He had to fight against the Colas, the Calukyas of Gujarat and the Hoysalas and signally defeated them. He also led an expedition against Vengi. Two inscription of his reign have been found in Vidarbha. One of them called the Sitabaldi pillar inscription seems to have originally belonged to the Vindhyasana hill at Bhandak in the Canda district. It is dated in the Saka year 1008 (A.D. 1087) and registers the grant of some nivartanas of land for the grazing of cattle, made by a dependant of a feudatory called Dhadibhandaka [EP Ind. Vol. III. pp. 304 f]. The other inscription was discovered at Dongarganv in the Yavatmal district. It sheds interesting light on the history of the Paramara dynasty. It shows that Jagaddeva, the youngest son of the Paramara king Udayaditya, the brother of Bhoja, left Malva and sought service with Vikramaditya VI, who welcomed him and placed him in charge of some portion of Western Vidarbha. This inscription is dated in the Saka year 1034 (A.D. 1112 [Ibid Vol. XXVI, pp. 177 f]). Another inscription of this Paramara prince Jagaddeva has come to notice at Jainad in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesa. It records several victories of Jagaddeva in Andhra and Dorasamudra and near the Arbuda mountain and registers the construction of a temple of Nimbaditya by his minister Lolarka [Ibid, Vol. XXII, pp. 54.f].

Vikramaditya's reign is renowned on account of some learned men who flourished at his court. Bilhana, who was patronised by him, wrote the Vikramankadevacarita, which is his poetical biography. Another famous author who flourished at his court was Vijnanesvara, the author of the well-known commentary Mitaksara on the Yajnavalkyasmrti.

Kalacuris

The decline of the Calukya power commenced soon after the reign of Vikramaditya VI. Tailapa III, the last Calukya king, was overthrown by the Kalacuri Bijjala, who was his Commander-in-Chief, in A.D. 1157. The Kalacuri usurpation lasted for about two decades. Bijjala's reign is noted for the rise of the Lingayat Sect.

Yadavas of Devagiri

In the last quarter of the twelfth century A.D. the Yadavas of Devagiri came into prominence. They had been ruling over Seunadesa (Khandes) in an earlier period as feudatories of the Later Calukyas, but Bhillama, the son of Mallugi, declared his independence and soon made himself master of the whole territory north of the Krsna. He then founded the city of Devagiri, which he made his capital. His son Jaitrapala killed Rudradeva of the Kakatiya dynasty on the field of battle and released his nephew Ganapati whom he had put into prison. Under Jaitra-pala's son Singhana, the power of the family greatly increased. We get considerable information about him from the four stone inscriptions of his general Kholesvara, found at Ambejogai in the Bid district [G. H. Khare, Sources of the Mediaeval History of the Deccan (Marathi), Vol. I, pp. 55 f]. Kholesvara was a native of Vidarbha, but was residing at Ambe where he has left his inscriptions. Some more details are furnished by a later copper-plate grant [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXV, pp. 199 f] of Ramacandra found at Purusottampuri in the Bid district.

Singhana achieved several victories. He defeated the Hoysala king Vira-Ballala, the Kakatiya king Ganapati and Laksmideva, the lord of Bhambhagiri, modern Bhamer in the Pimpalner taluka of the Dhulia district. He confined Bhoja II of the Silahara family on the hill of Pranala, i.e., Panhala, a strong fort about 12 miles to the north-west of Kolhapur. Most of these victories were won by his Brahman general Kholesvara. The latter vanquished also Arjunavarmadeva, king of Malva, and even pressed as far north as Varanasi, where he put Ramapala to flight. Kholesvara constructed several temples in Vidarbha and also established agraharas on the banks of the Payosni (modern Purna) and the Varada (modern Wardha). The former agrahara still exists under the name of the village Kholapur in the Amravati district.

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krsna, who obtained victories over the kings of Gurjara, Malava, Cola and Kosala. The Gurjara king was Visaladeva and the Malava ruler was Jaitugideva. The contemporary Cola king was Rajendra III (1246-79). The Kosala king was evidently the contemporary ruler of Ratanpur in Chattisgadh, who was probably the successor of Jajalladeva defeated by Singhana but no records of his reign have yet been recovered. An inscription of the reign of Krsna has been found in the temple of Khandesvara on a hillock on the outskirts of the village Nandganv in the Amravati district[Ep. Ind. Vol. XXVII, pp. 9 f]. It is dated in the Saka year 1177 (A.D. 1254-55) and records the donations of some gadyanakas for the offerings of flowers in the temple of Khandesvara.

Krsna was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva. From the recently discovered Kaleganv plates [Ep Ind., Ibid., Vol. XXXII, pp. 31 f] we know the exact date of his coronation as 29th August A.D. 1261. The most notable event of his reign is the annexation of North Konkan after defeating Somesvara of the Silahara dynasty. He left the throne to his son Amana, but the latter was soon deposed by Krsna's son Ramacandra, who captured the impregnable fort of Devagiri by means of a coup d'etat. He won several victories mentioned in the Purusottampuri plates dated in the Saka year 1232 (A.D. 1310). He is said to have defeated with ease the ruler of Dahala (i.e., the Cedi country with the capital Tripuri), subjugated the ruler of Bhandagara (modern Bhandara in Vidarbha), and dethroned the king of Vijrakara (modern Vairagadh). He is further credited with a victory over the Muhammedans, whom he drove out from Varanasi where be built a golden temple dedicated to Sarangapani. His minister Purusottama received from him the grant of four villages, which he formed into an agrahara and donated to several Brahmanas on the holy day of Kapilasasthi in the Saka year 1232 (A.D. 1310). The agrahara was named Purusottamapuri after the donor. It is still extant under its original name on the southern bank of the Godavari, about 40 miles due west from Parbhani. The villages together with their boundaries can still be identified in the vicinity of Purusottampuri [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXV, pp. 199 f].

A fragmentary inscription of the time of Ramacandra is built into the front wall of the temple of Laksmana on the hill of Ramtek. In the first half it gives the genealogy of Ramacandra and in the second half it describes the temples, wells and tirthas on and in the vicinity of the hill, which it names as Ramagiri. The object of the inscription seems to have been to record the repairs done to the temple of Laksmana by Raghava, a minister of Ramacandra.

In A.D. 1294 Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded the kingdom of Ramcandra and suddenly appeared before the gates of Devagiri. Ramacandra was taken unawares and could not hold out for long. He had to pay a large ransom to the Muslim conqueror. He continued, however, to rule till A. D. 1310 at least; for the aforementioned Purusottamapuri plates are, dated in that year. He was succeeded by his son Sankaradeva some time in A.D. 1311. He discontinued sending the stipulated tribute to Delhi. He was then defeated and slain by Malik Kafur. Some time thereafter, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramacandra, raised an insurrection and drove away the Muhammedans, but his success was short-lived. The Hindu kingdom of Devagiri thus came to an end in A.D. 1318.

Like their illustrious predecessors, the Yadavas also extended liberal patronage to art and literature. During their rule a peculiar style of architecture called Hemadpanti after Hemadri or Hemadpant, a minister of Mahadeva and Ramacandra, came into vogue. Temples built in this style are found in all districts of Maharastra. Several learned scholars flourished at the Yadava Court. Of them Hemadri was the foremost. During the reign of Mahadeva he held the post of Srikaranadhipa or Head of the Secretariat. He was appointed Minister and Head of the Elephant force by Ramacandra. He was as brave as he was learned and liberal. He conquered and annexed to the Yadava kingdom the eastern part of Vidarbha called Jhadi-mandala. Hemadri is well known as the author of the Caturvargacintamani comprising five parts, viz., (1) Vratakhanda, (2) Danakhanda, (3) Tirthakhanda, (4) Moksakhanda and (5) Parisesakhanda. Of these the third and fourth khandas have not yet come to light. Hemadri's work is held in great esteem and has been drawn upon by later writers on Dharmasastra. Hemadri wrote on other subjects as well. He is the author of a commentary on Saunaka's Pranavakalpa and also of a Sraddhakalpa, in which he follows Katayayana. His Ayurvedarasayana, a commentary on Vagbhata's Astangahrdaya, and Kaivalyadipika, a gloss on Bopedeva’s Muktaphala are also well known.

Hemadri extended liberal patronage to learned men. Among his proteges the most famous was Bopadeva. He was a native of Vedapada (modern Bedod) on the bank of the Wardha in the Adilabad district of the former Hyderabad State. Bopadeva is said to have written ten works on Sanskrt grammar, nine on medicine, one for the determination of tithis, three on poetics and an equal number for the elucidation of the Bhagavata doctrine. Only eight of these are now extant. The Mugdhabodha, his work on Sanskrt grammar, is very popular in Bengal.

Marathi literature also flourished in the age of the Yadavas. Cakradhara, who propagated the Mahanubhava cult in that age, used Marathi as the medium of his religious teachings. Following his example, several of his followers composed literary works in Marathi. They are counted among the first works of Marathi literature. Mukundaraja, the author of the Vedantic works Vivekasindhu and Paramamrta, and Jnanesvara, the celebrated author of the Bhavarthadipika a commentary on the Bhagavadgita, are the most illustrious writers of the age.