HISTORY

MEDIAEVAL PERIOD

Khiljis

The first Muhammedan invader of the Deccan was Ala-ud-din, the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khilji the emperor of Delhi. He undertook an expedition against Bhilsa, where he captured a rich booty, a part of which he sent on to Delhi. Jalal-ud-din was much pleased, and rewarded him with the viceroyalty of Oude in addition to the Government of Karra. When Ala-ud-din was at Bhilsa, he heard of the wealth of Devagiri, and meditated an expedition against that city. He withheld the tribute that was due from his district, accumulated funds, and raised a force of about 8,000 men, which he represented was for an advance against Canderi, a town in Gujarat. Ala-ud-din kept his real design a profound secret, and having learnt from his spies that Ramdev's army was occupied at some distance from the capital he left Karra in 1294 and suddenly appeared before Ellicpur, which he captured and plundered. Ramdev was completely taken by surprise. He collected all his available troops and sent them against the invader, but they were defeated at Lasura near Devagiri, and Ala-ud-din entered the city of Devagiri and plundered it. Ramdev shut himself up in the fortress, which was hastily provisioned for a siege. Ala-ud-din appeared before it, and announced that he was only the advance guard of the army of the Sultan of Delhi. Ramdev sued for peace, and succeeded in persuading Ala-ud-din to come to terms under certain easy conditions, when Ramdev's son appeared on the scene with the absent army, and attacked the invaders. The battle would have gone hard with Ala-ud-din had he not received the timely assistance of Malik Nusrat, who had been left with 1,000 men in charge of the city. Ala-ud-din succeeded in defeating his adversary. Ala-ud-din treated the vanquished with greater severity, and raised his demands; Ramdev submitted. A very heavy indemnity was exacted, Ellicpur and the surrounding country was made over to the victors, and the Raja also promised to send an annual tribute to Delhi.

Ala-ud-din returned to Karra, and shortly afterwards murdered his uncle on 19th July 1296 and usurped the throne on October 3, 1296. Ramdev did not keep up to his promises under the terms of the treaty. In 1307, an expedition of 30,000 horse, under the command of Malik Naib Kafur Hazardinari and Khvaja Haji, was fitted out against Devagiri. The Rai's sons fled, but he himself was taken prisoner and sent to Delhi, where he was detained for six months and was then released with all honours. The Sultan gave Ramdev a red canopy and the title of Rai Rayan (king of kings). In 1308, Malik Naib Kafur and Khvaja Haji arrived with an army at Devagiri, intended for an expedition against Warangal. Rai Rayan Ramdev rendered every assistance, and added a Maratha force of his own consisting of horse and foot. Prataprudra of Warangal was reduced and became a tributary. The imperial army then returned with great spoil by way of Devagiri to Delhi. In 1311 Malik Naib Kafur and Khvaja Haji arrived again at Devagiri for the conquest of the country to the south of the Krsna. Rai Rayan Ramdev was dead [This is according to Ferishta. But the Purushottampuri plated, dated Shaka 1232 show that Ramdeva was ruling till September 1310. Khusru states in his Tarikh-i-Alai that when the Muhannedan aremu reached Devagirio on 3rd February Ramdev made the necessary preparations for its equipment], and as the loyalty of his son Sankardev who succeeded him was doubted, a portion of the force was left at Jalna. Malik Kafur marched into the southern countries, and after reducing the rajas returned to Devagiri in April 1311, and then proceeded to Delhi.

In 1313 Malik Kafur came back to Devagiri and the fortress was occupied a second time by the Muhammedan troops. The Raja was dethroned and put to death, and his territories were annexed. Malik Kafur was appointed to settle the Deccan, but was soon afterwards ordered to Delhi, on account of the serious illness of the king. Harpaldev, the son-in-law of Ramdev, retook Devagiri and the whole of the country which had been in possession of the Muhammedans.

On January 6, 1316, Ala-ud-din died and was succeeded by his son Kutbuddin Mubarak Shah. The new Sultan marched to Devagiri in 1317, and troops were sent against Harpaldev. He was taken prisoner and brought to Devagiri, where he was first flayed alive and then beheaded. Bid district for the first time came under Muhammedan rule. The Sultan remained at Devagiri during the rains of 1318. He selected Malik Yak Lakhi to be the governor of Devagiri, and appointed revenue collectors and other officers throughout the country. The Sultan was, however, much given to dissipation, and became infatuated with Khusru Khan, whom he raised to great dignity and sent on an expedition to the south, in consequence of which, Malik Asad and other malcontents at Devagiri formed a plot to seize the Sultan on his way to Delhi, but the conspiracy was discovered. Malik Asad and his confederates were arrested and beheaded. The three sons of the late Ala-ud-din at Gwalior were also put to death.

After the Sultan returned to Delhi, Malik Yak Lakhi, the governor of Devagiri, rebelled, and a force was sent against him which made him prisoner. He was publicly disgraced, and Malik Ain-ul-Mulk was made governor, and Taj-ul-Mulk and Yamkhir-ul-Mulk were appointed his assistants. These soon settled the province, regulated the forces, and arranged for the payment of the tribute.

Mubarak Shah was anxious to have Khusru Khan near him, and sent relays of bearers to bring the latter with all haste from Devagiri. Shortly after his arrival, the favourite murdered his master and ascended the throne on April 15, 1320 under the name of Nasir-ud-din. The usurper conferred the office of divan on Taj-ul-Mulk, while Ain-ul-Mulk received the title of Alam Khan, but he was exceedingly unpopular, and Ain-ul-Mulk deserted him. On August 22, 1320 Nasir-ud-din was defeated and put to death by Amir Ghazi Malik, who ascended the throne as Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluk Shah, on September 8. 1320.

Tughluks

In 1321 the Sultan's eldest son, Muhammad Fakhr-ud-din Juna, now called Ulugh Khan, was sent with an army against Warangal. He was joined by some officers and men of Devagiri, and started on his expedition, but after a protracted siege a panic seized the troops, and the prince escaped with only, 3,000 horse to Devagiri. Strong reinforcements arrived from Delhi in the following year, and the prince was again sent into Telingana. Bidar was captured. Warangal was also reduced, and the Raja Prataprudra was taken prisoner and sent on to Delhi. In 1324 the Sultan proceeded against Lakhnauti, and sent for Ulugh Khan from Devagiri to act as his vice-regent during his absence. On his return in 1325, the Sultan was killed by the fall of a pavilion which his eldest son had ordered to be erected for him.

Ulugh Khan ascended the throne as Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluk Shah. He was an able but perverse ruler, and his extravagant projects distracted the people and ruined his exchequer. He tried to introduce a paper currency, but substituted copper tokens for paper. But the most cruel project of all was his attempt to transfer his capital from Delhi to Devagiri. The latter city was centrally situated, and "the design was by no means unreasonable in itself, if it had been begun without precipitancy and conducted with steadiness". As it was, the people suffered terrible hardshipa, and the Sultan was forced to abandon his project.

In the Deccan the Sultan's nephew Baha-ud-din rebelled, and Khvaja Jahan and other Amirs were sent against him. The Sultan's troops arrived at Devagiri, and the rebel was defeated and pursued into Karnataks, given up by Ballaldev, and was put to a cruel death. It was about this time that the Sultan arrived in person, and ordered the whole of the inhabitants to remove from Delhi to Devagiri, which was in future to be called Daulatabad or the "fortunate city". But many perished on the road and those who arrived at Daulatabad could not endure the suffering and exile, and the graveyards of Musalmans sprang up all round the city. After this the people were permitted to return to Delhi, but two years later they were again compelled on pain of death to leave it. The Sultan became more cruel than ever, and in 1341 he arrived at Daulatabad, which was visited by a famine, and made heavy demands upon the people. He sent a part of his army back to Delhi under Khvaja Jahan, and then started on an expedition towards the east coast; but the force was attacked by pestilence at Warangal, and he himself returned very ill to Daulatabad. On his way he had occasion to have a tooth drawn, and buried it with great ceremony under a magnificent tomb near the town of Bid. The importance of Bid district with its proximity to the new capital must have been enhanced considerably. The Sultan made Nusrat Khan, governor of Bidar, and entrusted the Maratha country to Kutlagh Khan, his preceptor. The Sultan, who was still ill, started for Delhi in 1341, and permitted the inhabitants to return with him. Owing to the famine which prevailed, the people suffered terribly, and they rose, in rebellion on all sides. Nusrat Khan at Bidar also revolted, and was besieged and captured. Next, Alisa, the nephew of Zafar Khan, was sent from Daulatabad to collect the revenues of Gulbarga, but he treacherously killed Bairam, the chief of Gulbarga, and then killed the naib of Bidar. Kutlagh Khan went in person against him from Daulatabad, and Alisa was defeated and taken prisoner.

In 1344 the Hindu Rajas of Telingana and Karnataka formed an alliance, and expelled all the Muhammedan garrisons in their dominions [According to Ferishta, the Hindu Rajas expelled the Musalmans from every quarter except Daulatabad. Briggs' Ferishta, Vol. I., p. 427]. To make matters worse, the officials of Kutlagh Khan were accused of reducing the revenues of the country by their rapacity. In 1346 the Sultan proposed to send a former governor, Ain-ul-Mulk, back to Daulatabad. The latter suspected treachery and rebelled, but was defeated and forgiven, Maulana Nizam-ud-din, the brother of Kutlagh Khan was then appointed governor of the Deccan: and a great addition was laid on the revenues of the country, which was divided into four provinces, and a governor was appointed to each [The Sultan also engaged inspectors of husbandry, and divided the country into districts of 60 miles square, each under the charge of a Shaikdar, who was to be ansewrable for its cultivation and improvement. Over a hundred Shaikdars were appointed and about seventy lakhs of rupees were spent to enable them to carry out their work]. The Sultan also despatched a large army in charge of his son-in-law, Imad-ul-Mulk, who was probably appointed governor of Berar as he made Ellicpur his headquarters. Instructions were further sent that the treasure which Kutlagh Khan had accumulated but which could not be forwarded to Delhi on account of the bad state of the roads, should be kept in the hill-fort adjoining, the city of Daulatabad. The people were disheartened at the increased demands made upon them, and many in Gujarat and Daulatabad rebelled. Muhammad Tughluk marched in person to Gujarat in 1347 and sent two officials, Zin-banda (Majd-ul Mulk) and Pisar Thanesari, to inquire into the disaffection at Daulatabad. These were men of low origin, and were detested on account of their cruelties. The rebellion in Gujarat was suppressed in 1347, but some of the rebels fled to Daulatabad, and were protected by the Moghal Amirs. The Sultan ordered Nizam-ud-din to send 1,500 horsemen with the most noted of the foreign Amirs, ostensibly as a reinforcement, but in reality to make prisoners of them on their arrival. At the end of the first stage the Amirs suspected treachery, murdered their guards, and returned to Daulatabad, where they put Nizam-ud-din into confinement. The two officials, Zin-banda and Pisar Thanesari were beheaded, and the treasure in the fort was seized. The Amirs then selected Ismail Khan to be their leader and placed him on the throne. The Hindu Rajas made common cause with them, and there was a general revolt in the Deccan. Muhammad Tughluk acted with great vigour. He arrived at Daulatabad with a large force, defeated the rebels, and besieged their leader, Ismail Khan, in the hill-fort of Daulatabad. Hasan Gangu and other insurgents fled towards Bidar and Gulbargi and the Sultan sent Imad-ul-Mulk against them. However, before the Deccan was fully settled, the people in Gujarat rose in rebellion. The Sultan appointed Imad-ul-Mulk, governor, and leaving Kivam-ud-din and other nobles to carry on the siege, proceeded to Gujarat and defeated the rebels. In the meantime insurgents under Hasan Gangu attacked Imad-ul-Mulk who was defeated and slain; while Kivam-ud-din and his party fled towards Gujarat, and Hasan Gangu started towards the city of Daulatabad. He crossed the Godavari without a hitch but had to fight with the advance guard of the enemy at Daulatabad. He defeated them and marched towards Bid and occupied it. Subsequently he routed the Delhi army and met Ismail Khan at Nizampur, where he was joined by the rebels from the hill-fort. Ismail Khan abdicated in favour of Hasan Gangu, who assumed the royal dignity under the name of Ala-ud-din Hasan Gangu Bahamani on August 3, 1347. He was the founder of the dynasty of the Bahamani Sultan Muhammad Tughluk was disheartened, but resolved first a settle Gujarat thoroughly before he returned to the Deccan. This, however, was never accomplished as the Sultan died in 1350, and the Deccan was lost to his kingdom.

Bahamanis

Hasan Gangu declared his independence in 1347 [ Dr. Kunte, Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas, p. 5], and made Gulbarga his capital. He seized the frontier fortresses of Karnataka and Telingana. The new kingdom which he founded comprised the Maratha country, and was divided into the following four provinces; Daulatabad and Berar on the north, and Gulbarga and the ceded districts of Telingana on the south. Daulatabad province included the country between Junnar, Daulatabad, Bid and Paithan on the north and Poona and Caul on the south. For nearly a century the Bahamani kings were engaged in wars against Vijayanagar, which rose out of the ruins of the kingdom of Karnataka, and became the greatest Hindu state of Southern India. In 1357 Hasan Gangu was invited to occupy Gujarat, and advanced with a large army for that purpose, but fell ill and returned to Gulbarga, where he died on February 11, 1358.

His successor, Muhammad Shah, invaded Telingana and captured Golkonda, the Raja of which sued for peace and promised to pay tribute. He next sent an order on the treasury of the Raja of Vijayanagar, probably in token of his suzerainty. This was resented as an insult, and in 1372 a war ensued in which the Raja of Vijayanagar was defeated and reduced to the position of a tributary. While Muhammad Shah was absent on these expeditions, an insurrection broke out in Daulatabad, which originated in false news of his death. Bahrain Khan, the son-in-law of the late king Hasan Gangu, was governor of Daulatabad, and as he had a dispute with Muhammad Shah, he invited Sultan Firoz of Delhi to occupy his province. The Hindu Rajas of Southern India also offered to become tributaries to Sultan Firoz, as they found that they only obtained a change of masters by having assisted Hasan Gangu. Sultan Firoz was in Gujarat preparing for a second campaign against Thatta, but he does not appear to have responded to their call, as he returned to Delhi when the campaign was over. In the meantime Muhammad Shah, after having reduced the Hindu Rajas, proceeded to Daulatabad and quelled the insurrection [Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas pp. 30-31].

The successors of Muhammad Shah were often enaged in wars with Vijayanagar. In 1398 the Hindu king Dev Rai, invaded the Raicur Doab. Firoz Shah Bahamani marched against him, and detached a portion of his army to check Narsing Rai, the chief of Gondvana, who had been incited by the Musalman Sultans of Malva and Khandes to invade Berar. Dev Rai was easily overcome, and the king marched against Narsing Rai, who was driven back into Gondvana, and the chief fort. Kherla, was captured. The Raja became a tributary. In the same year Timur invaded India, and Firoz Shah offered to be his vassal. The Sultans of Malva and Gujarat were suspicious of this embassy, and intrigued with Dev Rai of Vijayanagar to attack Firoz Shah.

On September 22, 1422, Ahmad Shah Wali succeeded Firoz Shah, and having reduced Vijayanagar and Warangal, turned his attention towards the Sultans of Malva and Gujarat, who were getting troublesome. He remained a year at Ellicpur, and in 1425 repaired the Narnala fort and completed the fortifications of Gawilgad. In the following year Sultan Husang of Malwa tried to prevail on Narsing Rai of Kherla to invade Berar, and when the latter declined, the Sultan marched on Kherla. Ahmad Shah went to the assistance of Narsing Rai, and Sultan Husang was severely repulsed. In 1427 the Bahamani king removed his capital to Bidar [Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas, p. 68], so as to be nearer to his Muhammedan neighbours, and married his eldest son, Ala-ud-din, to a daughter of the Sultan of Khandes, in order to strengthen himself against the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat [The fort of Bidar was completed in 1432. In 1428 the Bahamani king was induced by the Sultan of Khandesh to espouse the cause of a fugitive king of Gujarat. Ahmad Shah occupied Tanna (Thana) near Bombay, but after some severe struggles, his troops were driven out by the son of the reigning king of Gujarat. In 1433 he was again defeated in Khandesh].

Ahmad Shah died in 1435, and was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Shah II. In the same year the king's brother Muhammad Khan was sent to demand arrears of tribute from Vijayanagar, but he rebelled, and the king proceeded in person against Muhammad Khan, who was defeated and forgiven. An expedition was despatched into the Konkan in the following year, and some of the Rajas were reduced to the status of feudatories. It was here that the king received the beautiful daughter of the Raja of Sangamesvar in marriage, and neglected his Musalman queen for the Hindu princess. This led to a war with his father-in-law Nasir Khan, the Sultan of Khandes, who invaded Berar, assisted by the king of Gujarat and the Raja of Kherla. Khan Jahan, the governor, was besieged in Narnala, but escaped and joined the army which 'Ala-ud-din had despatched under Malik-ut-Tujar to oppose the invaders. He was then sent with a portion of the force towards Ellicpur to cut off the contingent of the Raja of Kherla, while the main army routed the forces of Khandes and Gujarat at the foot of the Rohankheda pass, which leads up to the Ajanta hills. Malik-ut-Tujar followed up the enemy's forces, plundered Burhanpur, and again defeated them at Lulling in Khandes. Nasir Khan died of vexation in 1437, and Malik-ut-Tujar returned in triumph to Bidar [Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas, p. 96]. There was another war with Vijayanagar in 1443, and three severe engagements were fought in a month. The Raja eventually submitted, and the peace which followed was not broken for many years. A second expedition was sent into the Konkan in 1453 under the command of Malik-ut-Tujar, but after a few successes, the force was ensnared into a narrow pass and the whole of it destroyed [Ibid, p. 102]. In 1455 Ala-ud-din inarched against the king of Gujarat, who had invaded his dominions but the latter retired, and the Bahamani king returned to Bidar, where he died in 1457.

The next king, Humayun, entered on a campaign into Telingana in 1459, and during his absence an insurrection broke out at Bidar. He returned, and having quelled the disturbance, put his brothers to a cruel death and was very severe with the insurgents. Humayun died in 1461.

Nizam Shah, his son, was a minor, and a council of regency was appointed, consisting of the queen-mother assisted by Khwaja Mahmud Gawan and Khwaja Jahan Turk [Khwaja Mahmud Gawan was governor of Berar, having succeeded Khwaja Jahan Turk, who held that appointment before him, in 1460]. The Rajas of Orissa and Warangal, thinking the government would be weak because the king was a minor, invaded the country, but were driven back. The Sultan of Malwa also became hostile and marched upon Bidar, where he defeated the Bahamani army and invested the fort. The queen-mother carried the young king to Firozabad on the Bhima, and solicited the aid of the Sultan of Gujarat. The latter responded with an army of 80,000 horse, and was met by Mahmud Gawan, governor of Berar, who had cut off the communications of the enemy. The siege was raised, and the Malwa army suffered greatly in its retreat through the mountainous country of Gondwana. The invasion was renewed in the following year by way of Daulatabad, but the Sultan of Gujarat again interfered, and the enemy was forced to fall back. Nizam Shah returned to Bidar, where he died on July 30, 1463.

Prince Muhammad, the brother of the late king succeeded to the throne, and as he was only nine years of age, the council of regency was maintained. Khwaja Jahan Turk contrived to keep Mahmud Gawan employed at a distance, while he usurped the queen-mother's authority and greatly misused it; in consequence of which, Muhammad Shah denounced him in public durbar. and Nizam-ul-mulk put him to death. His colleague Mahmud Gawan was called to Bidar, and assumed executive charge, while Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed governor of Berar. In 1465 Mahmud Gawan was appointed Prime Minister [Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas, p. 141].

In 1468 a force was sent against the troublesome little Gond state on the northern frontier, which in conjunction with Malwa, was a constant source of irritation. The expedition was successful, but Nizam-ul-Mulk, who commanded it, was treacherously killed by some of the enemy after Kherla was taken. The king of Malwa then invaded Berar. and Ellicpur was captured by his general. Makbul Khan. A peace soon followed, by which Kherla was given to the king of Malwa, who in his turn renounced all claim to Berar or any part of the Bahamani kingdom. Mahmud Gawan next marched into Konkan, while Yusuf Adil Khan, the governor of Daulatabad, was sent against the independent chief-tains of the mountains bordering on Khandes [According to Ferishta, Yusuf was the son of Amurath, the Sultan of the Turks and was saved by his mother, when the king's sons were strangled in order to secure the succession to the eldest. He was taken to Persia and then to India, where he was sold as a Georgian slave to Mahmud Gawan at Bidar. Yusuf rose to be master of the horse, and became attached to Nizam-ul-Mulk, who procured him the title of 'Adil Khan.' He took part in the campaign against Kherla, and on the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk succeeded to the command of the forces. Yusuf was adopted as a son by Mahmud Gawan; and when the latter was put to death in 1481 he retired to Bijapur, declared his independence in 1489 and was the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty.]. Both these expeditions were successful, and in 1471 the king entered on a campaign against Telingana. The prime minister, Mahmud Gawan, carried out many judicial reforms, and in 1480, reorganised the administration of the country, and substituted eight divisions for the four provinces into which it was originally divided. This was done with the view of weakening the governors, who were becoming too powerful; but it led to a strong combination against him, of which Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahari was at the head. Mahmud Gawan was falsely accused of having written a letter inviting the king of Orissa to march on Bidar, and was put to death in 1481 [Bahamani Rajyacha Itihas, p. 160]. "With him departed all the cohesion and power of the great Bahamani kingdom [See Meadows Taylor's Manual of History]." Yusuf Adil Khan was hastily summoned, and ordered to proceed towards Goa against Bahadur Khan Gilani; but the governors of the provinces reluctantly took the field, and when the campaign was over, Imad-ul-Mulk and Khudavand Khan returned to their respective capitals [Fata-ula-Imad Khan was taken as a prisoner in the wars with Vijayanagar, and was brought up as a Muhammedan by Khan Jahan, governor of Berar. He distinguished himself in the wars of the Bahmani kings, and Mahmud Gawan procured him the title of Imad-ul-Mulk. After the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, he was made Governor of Berar; but in 1480 his province was divided, and Khudawand Khan was appointed to Mahur and Ramgir. Imad Khan threw off his allegiance in 1484 and was the founder of the Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar. He was the first of the great military commanders to declare his independence, but died in the same year, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Ala-ud-din Imad-Shah.].

The king died at Bidar in 1482, and as his successor Mahmud was a minor. Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed regent. Yusuf 'Adil Khan had a feud with Nizam-ul-Mulk and declined to take office but retained his military command. He retired to Bijapur, and never afterwards returned to Bidar. Nizam-ul-Mulk commenced to look about his own independence, and sent his son Malik Ahmad with some of the royal treasure to his seat of government at Junnar [According to one account, Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahari was the son of a Brahman patwari or hereditary accountant of Pathri in the Parbhani district, and according to another, he was the son of a Brahman of Vijayanagar. He was taken prisoner while young, and brought up as a Muhammedan. He possessed great abilities and became governor of Daulatabad province, but when that was divided in 1480, he removed his seat of government to Junnar]. He also left the king's camp and arrived at Bidar, intending to join his son with more treasure, but was murdered by the governor, Dilpasand Khan. Malik Ahmad was at this time successfully engaged in reducing Northern Konkan, where he found the Marathas in a state of rebellion, and when he heard of his father's death, declared his independence [While the governors of provinces rebelled and the kingdom was dismembered, the Bahamni king save himself up to pleasure and was a puppet in the hands of his Turkish minister, Kasim Barid. Kutb-ul-Mulk, governor of Golkonda, declared his independence in 1512, and was the founder of the Kutb Shahi dynasty. The last of the Bahamani kings Kalim Aula Shah, escaped from Bidar and went to Bijapur in 1526. Amir Barid assumed the style and title of king, and was the founder of the Bari Shahi dynasty of Berar].

Nizam Shahi Kings of Ahmadnagar

Malik Ahmad, or Ahmad Shah as he was now called, was not left unmolested when he declared his independence in 1490 [ Dr. Kunte, Ahamdnagarchi Nanizamsahi, 1962.p. 25 f. n]. The Bahamani generals were twice sent against him, and were defeated on both the occasions. A third attempt was made by Azamat-ul-Mulk with 18,000 men; but Ahmad dexterously avoided the force, suddenly appeared before Bidar, and carried away his female relatives who were left in the Bahamani capital. Ahmad then rejoined his army, and on the 28th May, 1490 defeated Azamat-ul-Mulk at Bhingar. The Bahamani army gave up molesting him and Ahmad transferred his capital from Junnar to a spot near Bhingar which he called Ahmadnagar. The city commanded all the passes into Daulatabad and Khandes; and after having established himself firmly, the new king determined to extend his authority into the sub-province of Daulatabad, and eventually into Berar. Malik Waju, the Bahamani governor of Daulatabad, declared his independence in 1489, but his younger brother Malik Asraf deposed him and was now in possession of the, fort. Ahmad made several unsuccessful attempts to capture the place, and decided on ravaging the district every year during the season of harvest till it should be given up. The fort was invested in 1499 when Mahmud Shah of Gujarat moved with a body of troops into Khandes, and Ahmad was forced to raise the siege. The latter, however, made a sudden night attack on Mahmud Shah at Sultanpur. and having driven him back, returned and resumed the siege. Malik Asraf arranged to give up the fort to the king of Gujarat: but many of the besieged demurred, and were negotiating with Ahmad about its surrender, when the governor died, and the keys of the fort were handed over to Ahmad. Daulatabad with its large dependencies added greatly to the king's power. Ahmad died in 1509 and was buried at Roza, to which he was much attached.

Burhan Shah, the son of the late king, was only seven years old when he succeeded, and a council of regency was appointed under Mukammil Khan. Imad Shah of Berar invaded the country in 1510, and although 8,000 of the Ahmadnagar horse went over to him, he was successfully opposed by Khvaja Jahan, governor of Paranda. The young king was himself present in a battle fought at Rahuri, where Imad Shah was defeated. Burhan's relations claimed their hereditary rights as patvaris or accountants of Pathri, in the Parbhani district; but Imad Shah refused to recognise them, and Mukammil Khan, the regent, forcibly took possession of the town in 1518. In 1527 Imad Shah retook and fortified Pathri, and although he called in the assistance of the king of Khandes, Burhan defeated the forces sent against him, and personally drove out the garrison at Pathri [Ahmadnagarchi Nizamshahi, p. 47]. The king of Gujarat next assisted Imad Shah, who offered to hold Berar nominally under him; and in 1529 Burhan was hard-pressed by the combined forces of Gujarat, Khandes, and Berar. Ismail assisted his brother-in-law with 6,000 horse and nearly half a million of money, but Amir Barid intrigued with the men and Burhan was defeated. Burhan had to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Gujarat, and in 1530, when he sent an embassy to congratulate Bahadur Shah on the conquest of Malva, the latter insisted that Burhan should do homage personally. The ambassador, Shah Tahir, a religious man, saved Burhan from this humiliation, by presenting him with a Koran written by   and when the king of Gujarat saw the sacred book, he descended and did homage to it. Bahadur Shah further renounced all pretensions to the sovereignty of the Deccan. Burhan received much assistance from his Brahman Pesva or prime minister, Kanhu Narsi, in whom he reposed great confidence. Kanhu Narsi was a brave soldier and a skilful administrator, and reduced the Maratha chiefs of the mountain tracts [Ibid, p. 48].

In 1531 Burhan was again involved in a quarrel with Ismail of Bijapur, and suffered one of his greatest defeats near Naldurg. He fled to Ahmadnagar, but a reconciliation followed, and Burhan was permitted to prosecute his designs against Berar. while Ismail was to be unmolested in his hostility of Golkonda for having assisted Amir Barid at Bidar. There was comparative tranquillity till 1542, when Burhan Shah and Amir Barid interfered in a dispute between 'Asad Khan and Ibrahim' Adil Shah, and invaded the Bijapur kingdom. Solapur and Paranda were captured, and Bijapur was invested; while Ibrahim retired to Gulbarga and called Asad Khan to his assistance. The troops rallied round their king, and Burhan Shah lost all that he had taken in the war. and beat a disastrous retreat to Daulatabad. Shortly afterwards he again invaded Bijapur, and on his way to Gulbarga, was severely defeated at Urcan (Arjan) [Ibid, p. 78] on the Bhima by Ibrahim Adil Shah and Asad Khan. He renewed the campaign in the following year and redeemed his losses. Ibrahim was reduced to great extremities. In 1549 a still more formidable combination was formed, and the Bijapur kingdom was invaded simultaneously by Burhan Shah, Ramraja of Vijayanagar, and the king of Golkonda.

In 1553 Burhan Shah advanced once more, and besieged the Adil Shahi capital, but fell ill and returned to Ahmadnagar where he died the same year. His son Husain Nizam Shah resumed hostilities, and defeated the king of Bijapur in a severe action at Solapur. The desultory war was continued for some time, till a formidable invasion of the Ahmadnagar kingdom took place in 1558, and the combined forces of Ali Adil Shah and Ramraja overran the country. The capital was invested, but on the approach of the monsoon the invaders withdrew and separated at Naldurg. Before they retired, Husain ceded the fort of Kalyani as the price of peace. Husain tried to retake Kalyani in 1562, and another war ensued. The armies of the kings of Bijapur and Vijayanagar again besieged Ahmadnagar, when the Sina river suddenly inundated its banks, and 25,000 men are said to have been swept away. A pestilence also broke out and the siege was abandoned. The successes of the Hindus during both these invasions created a general feeling of resentment among the Muhammedans and led to the famous quadruple alliance, by which the kingdom of Vijayanagar was overthrown in the great battle of Talikota on the 25th January, 1565.

Husain Shah returned to Ahmadnagar, and died the same year. His son Murtaza ascended the throne under the regency of the queen-mother, Khunza Sultana, assisted by her brothers. In 1567, Ali Adil Shah invaded the Nizam Shahi dominions and took several places. Khunza Sultana, by the extreme honour she showed to her relations, gave offence to some of the nobles, who complained to the king. With the king's permission they gained over some of the chief nobles and attempted to overthrow the queen's authority. They some time after repaired to the palace, but the childish fears of the king made him conclude that the secret was berayed. To save himself he revealed the plot to his mother who instantly caused the principal conspirators to be secured. In 1569, the queen marched with her son to oppose the encroachments of Kisvar Khan, the Bijapur general. At Dhamanganv, Murtaza gained over the principal nobles and sent Habas Khan to tell the queen that she should no longer take part in public affairs. Enraged at this message she summoned her supporters and made a show of resistance, but was soon seized and her attendants fled. The king, assuming charge of the government, marched at the head of the army. On nearing the enemy's camp he received an insulting letter from the Bijapur general, and swore that he would not rest till he had entered the Dharur fort. He put on his armour and succeeded in reaching the gate, where amidst showers of shot, arrows, and rockets poured from fort walls he escaped unhurt, though many of his men, horses and elephants were killed. As the enemy's fire suddenly ceased the Ahmadnagar troops entered unopposed and found the fort empty. An arrow had pierced the heart of Kisvar Khan and the garrison had fled. Murtaza cut off Kisvar Khan's head and hung it over the battlements, and marched on to invade Bijapur. Ibrahim Kutb Shah of Golkonda. who at first acted in concert with him, was treated in an unfriendly way by Murtaza and was forced to make his escape, leaving his camp to be plundered by the Nizam Shahis. Murtaza concluding a treaty with the Bijapur king, returned to Ahmadnagar. [Ahmadnagarchi Nizamshahi, pp. 149-51.] The king attained his majority in 1569, and an arrangement was made by which 'Ali' Adil Shah annexed the southern provinces of Vijayanagar and in return assisted Murtaza to conquer Berar. The allied armies proceeded against Tufal Khan, but nothing came of the expedition, and the forces retired. Tufal Khan then entered the Ahmadnagar territories, and Murtaza advanced and defeated him in 1572. He retired to Narnala and appealed to the emperor Akbar, who issued a mandate that Berar should not be molested; but Murtaza paid no attention to Akbar, and Tufal Khan was defeated and put to death. Burhan Imad Shah, who was taken prisoner, died shortly afterwards, and Berar was annexed by Murtaza Nizam Shah. The king of Khandes made an ineffectual attempt to secure the succession for a relative of the deceased king, and was pursued to Burhanpur. There were some jealousies about the annexation by 'Ali' Adil Shah of the Vijayanagar territories, and Murtaza minister, Cengiz Khan, advised that Bidar should be taken. The enemies of the minister represented that he had designs of his own against Berar and Cengiz Khan was poisoned. Salabat Khan was appointed minister, and carried on the government ably for many years; but in a moment of anger the king imprisoned him, and the State fell into confusion. Mirza Khan, one of the chief nobles, brought out prince Miran Husain, who was confined at Daulatabad. In the meantime the king released Salabat Khan, but it was too late, and Miran Husain, having surprised Ahmadnagar, suffocated his father in a bath in 1588. Murtaza's remains were interred at Roza, and were afterwards transferred to Karbala.

The new king, Miran Hussain. made Mirza Khan his minister, and gave himself up to excesses of all kinds. Mirza Khan imprisoned him in 1588, and raised his cousin Ismail to the throne. The Deccanis and Abyssinians under Jamal Khan revolted, and the deposed king was put to death. Mirza Khan was also executed. and Jamal Khan became minister. Burhan, the brother of Murtaza Shah, was considered to have the best claim to the throne: and Akbar, only too anxious for a pretext to interfere offered to assist him. Raja Ali Khan was sent on this service, and the king of Bijapur also espoused Burhan's cause. Salabat Khan likewise declared for him in Berar, and was joined by one of Burhan's sons; but the forces were defeated by Jamal Khan, who then turned round and routed the Bijapur army. Burhan himself entered Berar and was joined by several nobles; while Raja Ali Khan marched on in advance and attacked Jamal Khan, who was defeated and slain. Ahmadnagar soon fell and Burhan deposed his son Ismail, and ascended the throne in 1591 under the title of Burhan Nizam Shah II.

It was in this year that the emperor Akbar despatched ambassadors to the four kings of the Deccan. with a demand to acknowledge his supremacy; but they all evaded compliance, and the ambassadors returned in 1593. One of the first acts of Burhan Shah on becoming king was to assist Dilavar Khan, the retired regent of Bijapur, against Ibrahim Adil Shah; and in 1593 he supported prince Ismail, who had rebelled against the king of Bijapur. Burhan died during the campaign in 1595 and his son Ibrahim succeeded him.

The young king maintained the wax, and was killed the same year in a severe general action about 40 miles from Ahmadnagar. Mian Manju, the minister, released a boy named Ahmad, who was confined at Daulatabad, and proclaimed him king. Ahmad was supposed to be of royal descent, but this was disputed by Yekhlas Khan and other Abyssinians. Mian Manju in desperation, invited prince Murad from Gujarat. The latter marched into Malva to join the force that had already been assembled under Mirza Khan, who was now made Khan Khanan, but there were disagreements among the commanders, and the co-operation was not cordial. Raja Ali Khan joined them at Mandu, and the united army advanced on Ahmadnagar. Mian Manju defeated Yekhlas Khan and the other malcontents, and regretted having called in the Moghals, but it was too late, and he, taking the boy Ahmad with him, left for Bijapur, to procure assistance from Ibrahim Adil Shah. Yekhlas Khan, after his defeat, took Moti to Paithan on the Godavari, where he was attacked and defeated by the Moghals. Nehang Khan however, fought his way to Ahmadnagar. but Shah Ali and his other supporters were cut off and perished. Ahmadnagar was invested by the Moghals in November 1595. and was gallantly defended by Cand Bibi. The king of Bijapur sent 25,000 men under Sohil Khan for its relief; and at Naldurg, Sohil Khan was joined by the remainder of Yekhlas Khan's force, together with a contingent of 6,000 men from the king of Golkonda. The besiegers failed in several desperate assaults, but the relieving force lingered, and the queen did not know when she might expect them. She consequently accepted the terms offered by the besiegers, which involved the cession of Berar; and prince Murad proceeded at once to occupy that province.

The reinforcemerts arrived three days later, and Bahadur, whose claim was favoured by the queen-dowager, was placed on the throne under her guardianship. Cand Bibi appointed Muhammad Khan, minister; but he proved treacherous, and made overtures to the Khan Khanan, offering to surrender the whole Nizam Shahi kingdom to the imperial troops. The traitor was seized; and Sohil Khan who was returning to Bijapur, was ordered back to Ahmadnagar. In the meantime the Khan Khanan was taking possession of districts that were not included in the cession of Berar. and the Bijapur general was ordered against him. The Khan Khanan and Mirza Shah left prince Murad's camp at Sahpur in Berar, and near Sonpet or Supa on the Godavari, about twelve kos from Pathri, encountered the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golkonda under Sohil Khan. A great battle was fought in the neighbourhood of Sonpet on 8 and 9 February 1597 in which Raja Ali Khan was killed. The Moghals remained victors, but were too weak to pursue; and the Khan Khanan and Mirza Shah Rukh returned to Sahpur. There were frequent disputes after this among the imperial commanders, and the Khan Khanan was recalled in 1597. Prince Murad reduced Narnala, Gavilgad, and other hill-forts in Berar; and in 1598 Lohagad near Daulatabad was invested, and after a siege of one month, was taken by Mirza Ali Beg Akbar Shahi, Kherla and Nasik followed. Prince Murad married a daughter of Bahadur Khan, the successor of Raja Ali Khan of Khandes. Prince Murad was much given to dissipation, and Abul Fazl was sent to bring him to court. The prince however, died suddenly on the very day that Abul Fazl arrived at the Moghal camp near Dihbari on the Purna, twenty kos from Daulatabad. The Moghal commanders urged a return, but Abul Fazl refused to listen to them. The emperor also sent prince Daniyal and the Khan Khanan with a fresh body of troops into the Deccan while he himself followed by easy stages. The affairs at Ahmadnagar were in a state of confusion, and Cand Bibi's authority was resisted by Nehang Khan, who succeeded Muhammad Khan as minister. Nehang Khan taking advantage of Khan Khanan's absence and of the rainy season, sent a detachment, and retook the town of Bid from the Moghals. The governor of Bid marched out twelve miles to meet the Ahmadnagar force, but being wounded and defeated, he with great difficulty reached Bid, which was soon invested. Akbar despatched prince Daniyal, Mirza Yusuf Khan and Khan Khanan (1599) to the governor's relief, when Nehang Khan immediately raised the seige and marched with 15.000 horse and foot to seize the Jaipur Kotli pass and there meet the Moghals. The prince learning of this movement marched round by the village of Manuri and avoided the pass. An ineffectual attempt was made to check the advance of the Moghals, and then Nehang Khan fled to Junnar, while Ahmadnagar was invested a second time in A.D. 1600. The brave Cand Bibi again defended the place, but was murdered by her own troops; and after a siege of four months and four days, the place was captured by assault by prince Daniyal and Mirza Yusuf Khan. The young king Bahadur, and all the members of his family, were taken to the emperor at Asirgad, and were sent into confinement to Gwalior. A severe scarcity followed the capture of the Nizam Shahi capital, and the imperial army suffered greatly.

On the fall of Ahmadnagar (1600) the emperor Akbar conferred the government of the country on Khvaja Beg Mirza Safavi a relation of Shah Tahmasp of Persia and Mirza Muhammad Salih who lived in the country, and, according to the Moghal historian conferred many kindnesses, obligations, and comforts on the, people. [Anfa’ul-Akhbar in Elliot and Dowson, Vol. I. 247.] The officers of the Ahmadnagar kingdom refused to admit that the fall of the capital carried with it all hope of independence. They declared Murtaza the son of Shah Ali, king and made Paranda, about seventy-five miles south-east of Ahmad nagar, their capital. Of these officers Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian and Mian Raju Dakhani [Of Malik Ambar's origin the stories vary. The most consistent of them is that in his youth he was a personal adherent of Chengiz Khan, the too loyal minister of Murtaza Shah I and from this able patron acquired the knowledge for which he was afterwards famous. Elphinstone's History of India. According to Grant Duff Mian Raju was a Hindu; according to Briggs he was a Musalman.], in spite of the Moghal forces, for more than twenty years held almost the whole of the Nizam Shahi dominions. Malik Ambar's rule extended from the Kutb Shahi and Adil Shahi borders within two miles of Bid and eight of Ahmadnagar, and from sixteen miles west of Daulatabad to within the same distance of the port of Ceul. Mian Raju held Daulatabad and the country north and south from the Gujarat frontier to within twelve miles of Ahmadnagar. Both officers professed allegiance to Murtaza Nizam Shah II, whom they kept in the fort of Ausa about 130 miles south-east of Ahmadnagar.

Ahmadnagar was in the possession of the Moghals; and the Khan Khanan proceeded to the imperial camp, and took possession of Asirgad, which had just surrendered after a siege of six months. The emperor started for Agra in 1601 and ordered the Khan Khanan to return to Ahmadnagar. Abul Fazl was marching for Nasik, but held back and joined the Khan Khanan at Boranganv. An attack on Murtaza Nizam Shah II was meditated, when intimation was received that Ibrahim Adil Shah was marching on Ahmadnagar. The Khan Khanan advanced to Jalna in order to watch the Bijapur army, and also to prevent a junction between Malik Ambar and Mian Raju. Abul Fazl crossed the Godavari and took the strong fort of Kailna, when he heard that Ali Mardan Khan, the commander of the imperial troops in Telingana, had been defeated and taken prisoner. He at once detached a force under his son against Malik Ambar at Nanded, where the latter was afterwards defeated by Mirza Irich, the son of the Khan Khanan. A sort of compromise was effected, and the Moghals assisted Malik Ambar against his rival Mian Raju, who was defeated and taken prisoner in 1603. Murtaza was removed to Junnar, and Malik Ambar proclaimed himself minister-in-chief of the kingdom and viceroy of Daulatabad. A year or so after the occurrence of these events Malik Ambar founded the city of Khadki, which later became famous as Aurangabad. The minister then regulated the country, and levied large armies. In his subsequent resistance to the encroachments of the Moghals, Malik Ambar availed himself largely of the services of Maratha chiefs, whose power, it may be said, he was the first to develop, and it was under his banner that Sahaji, the father of Sivaji, laid the foundathan of Maratha greatness. But it was no less as a statesman an as a general that Malik Ambar stands out prominently, and the Revenue Settlement which he perfected has celebrated his name as the Todar Mall of the Deccan.

Malik Ambar turned his attention to the recovery of the capital of the Nizam Shahi kingdom. Akbar, whose troops had captured Ahmadnagar, was dead (1605) and had been succeeded by his son Jahangir, when Malik Ambar struck the first blow for the repossession of the city. The opportunity was the more favourable, as Jahangir's attention was occupied in suppressing the rebellion created by his son Khusrau. in 1608 Malik Aihbar revolted, and laid siege to Ahmadnagar. Raja Man Sing, one of the imperial generals, made preparations to assist the Khan Khanan in suppressing the disturbance. Prince Parviz, the emperor's son, also arrived at Burhanpur the following year; but the Khan Khanan did not support him heartily, and was suspected of being in collusion with the enemy. The Moghal army entered the Balaghat, and was defeated by Malik Ambar in 1610. A hurried peace was entered into, and the Moghals retreated; but the siege of Ahmadnagar still continued, and when Khvaja Beg Mirza the commandant, heard of the return of the relieving army, he was forced to capitulate. Khvaja Beg Mirza was allowed to retire with his men to Burhanpur. In 1610 the Khan Khanan was superseded by Khan Jahan Lodi alias Bahadur Khan. Subsequently, the Moghals advanced in two columns. Abdulla Khan with a force from Gujarat proceeded by Nasik, and the other column under Khan Jahan Lodi and Raja Man Sing marched through Berar. Abdulla crossed the ghats and approached Daulatabad, before he was aware of the proximity of the main body of the enemy. Malik Ambar had avoided a general engagement, but sorely harassed Abdulla with his light Marathi cavalry; and as the Moghal commander found his difficulties increase, he attempted to retreat, when the main body of the enemy came up. Ali Mardan Khan was defeated and take prisoner, and the retreat was converted into a disgraceful flight Khan Jahan Lodi and Raja Man Sing, seeing the turn of events, retired with the other column to prince Parviz at Burhanpur. The Khan Khanan was ordered back to the Deccan in 1613, and succeeded in creating disaffection in Malik Ambar's army. The Marathas deserted Malik Ambar, and many of his own officers went over to Shah Navaz Khan who advanced with the imperial army to Balapur in 1615. Malik Ambar was assisted by the king-of Bijapur and Golkonda; but in a general engagement, his army was completely defeated and was pursued. Prince Parvis was superseded by prince Khurram the following year; and the emperor himself arrived at Mandu in 1617. The kings of Bijapur and Golkonda had grown jealous of the Abyssinian, and deserted his cause in consequence of which Malik Ambar was defeated by prince Khurram, and was forced to relinquish Ahmadnagar. Ibrahim Adil Shah rendered active assistance to the Moghals and the previous conquests of the empire were re-established.

The Deccan was tolerably quiet till 1620, when Malik Ambar suddenly descended the Balaghat with 60,000 horse, and having defeated the imperial troops, pursued them as far as Mandu. He returned to Balapur, and after a short stay, advanced and laid siege to Burhanpur. Shah Jahan was sent back to restore order in the Deccan; and in 1621. his advance guard pursued the enemy from Mandu to Burhanpur. The latter city had now been invested for more than a year, but on the appearance of Shah Jahan the siege was raised. Ahmadnagar had also been besieged, and the prince followed up the enemy to Khadki, which he plundered. Malik Ambar placed Murtaza Nizam Shah II in the fort of Daulatabad, and adopted his usual plan of harassing the Moghals. Shah Jahan moved on to Paithan in order to relieve Ahmadnagar, but there was a want of provisions in the imperial camp, and he gladly closed with an offer for peace which was made by Malik Ambar. The prince sent a reinforcement and some treasure to Khanjar Khan, the commandant of Ahmadnagar, and returned with his army to Burhanpur.

In 1623 Shah Jahan rebelled, and passing through Telingana and Orissa, advanced on Allahabad. Prince Parviz and Mahabat Khan commanded the imperial troops in the Deccan. The former marched against Shah Jahan, while Mahabat Khan remained at Bijapur to receive Mulla Muhammad Lari and Ali Ser, the respective envoys of Ibrahim Adil Shah and Malik Ambar. The Abyssinian wanted to secure the assistance of the Moghals in a war against Ibrahim Adil Shah, but as he stipulated that the government of the Deccan should be entrusted to him, Mahabat Khan sided with the king of Bijapur. In return for this alliance, Ibrahim Adil Shah despatched a contingent of 5,000 troops to accompany Mahabat Khan, who followed prince Parviz to Allahabad. Another contingent of 5,000 men was sent to join a Moghal force under Laskar Khan at Burhanpur, intended for a campaign against Malik Ambar. Laskar Khan entered the Balaghat; and Malik Ambar sent his wives and children to Daulatabad, and taking Murtaza with him, left Khadki for Kandhar. He then levied contributions on the Kutb Shahi territories, plundered Bidar, and advanced and laid siege to Bijapur. The Adil Shahi capital had been denuded of its best troops, and an emergent requisition was sent to Laskar Khan, to march to the relief of the city. Malik Ambar requested to be allowed to settle his differences with the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda, but as Laskar Khan continued to advance he left Bijapur and suddenly attacked and defeated the Moghals at Bhatavadi ten miles from Ahmadnagar in November 1624. Laskar Khan and other officers were taken prisoners and sent to Daulatabad. Khanjar Khan by great exertions escaped to Ahmadnagar and prepared the fortress for a siege, and Jan Sipar Khan reached Bid and set the fort in order. Malik Ambar left a force to besiege Ahmadnagar and returned to Bijapur, which he again invested. He also captured Solapur with the guns from Daulatabad, and occupied all the Bijapur territory up to the frontiers of the imperial dominions in the Balaghat. In 1625 Shah Jahan returned to the Deccan, and Malik Ambar sent a force to his assistance under Yusuf Habsi. Burhanpur was invested, and three desperate assaults were made, but the commandant held out bravely till it was relieved by prince Parviz and Mahabat Khan. This terminated Malik Ambar's last campaign against the Moghals. He died in 1626, in his eightieth year; and his remains were interred under a splendid dome which he had erected at Roza, Khuldabad. Fateh Khan, his eldest son, succeeded as regent; but Murtaza deprived him of authority and confined him in the fort of Junnar. He escaped and rebelled, but was taken and confined this time in Daulatabad.

Mahabat Khan was recalled from the command of the army in the Deccan, and was succeeded by Khan Jahan Lodi. Prince Parviz died the same year at Burhanpur; and the new commander became also viceroy of the Deccan. As Murtaza was showing signs of hostility, the viceroy left Laskar Khan in charge of Burhanpur, and marched on Khadki. The king was in Daulatabad, and Hamid Khan, an Abyssinian, was made commander-in-chief, and was entrusted with the management of the State. Hamid Khan bribed Khan Jahan, and all the Moghal conquests in the Balaghat as far as Ahmadnagar, were restored to Murtaza Nizam Shah. Sipahdar Khan, the commandant of Ahmadnagar, however, refused to surrender his fortress without a royal farman; but the other commandants gave up theirs and returned to Burhanpur.

Shah Jahan succeeded his father in 1627; and in the following year Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled. Mahabat Khan was appointed viceroy; and as there were apprehensions of a general confederacy in the Deccan, the emperor arrived at Burhanpiir with a very large army, and personally directed the general policy of the campaign. Khan Jahan Lodi was in the neighbourhood of Bid, and an advance was made in three columns. Khvaja Abul Hasan marched by Nasik, and was afterwards joined by Ser Khan, subbedar of Gujarat. Azam Khan was sent through the Nizam Shahi country against Mukarrab Khan and other rebels, who were cantoned at Jalna for the rains; but the insurgents retreated to Pathri, and ascending the Balaghat, took refuge at Dharur in Bid district. Azam Khan followed them up, and at Bid heard from Saf Sikan Khan, the commandant, that Khan Jahan had retired to Rajuri. After some marching and countermarching, Azam Khan encountered Khan Jahan at Pipalnir, near Bid. The ex-viceroy was completely defeated, and fled to Saunganv on the Godavari. Azam Khan halted at Bid to give his men rest, and sent the garrison of the fort in pursuit of the enemy. Khan Jahan continued his flight to Baizapur and Bhosla in the Aurangabad district, and then to Lasura, within ten kos of Daulatabad. Azam Khan followed him with 20,000 horse, and was joined by the Marathas under Sahaji Bhosle. Murtaza was in the new city of Nizampur, which he had built in the suburbs of Daulatabad. He entered the fortress on the approach of Azam Khan, while Khan Jahan sent his family under cover into Aubasdara. The ex-viceroy remained at Ir-Kahtalla, one mile from Daulatabad; and despatched Darya Khan with his Afghans to plunder the low country below the Calisganv ghat. Abdulla Khan was sent after him with some imperial troops, but Darya Khan succeded in his object and returned to the Balaghat. Azam Khan arrived before Daulatabad, and Murtaza Nizam Shah II was defeated in a general action. Owing, however, to the ravages of the enemy and failure of rains, there was great scarcity all round, and Azam Khan returned towards Jamkhed. Mukarrab Khan with the Nizam Shahi troops went to Bid, and then left for Daulatabad, but the scarcity there sent him back to Dharur. Azam Khan, hearing of his movements, sent Sahaji Bhosle to Junnar and Sangamner, while he followed Mukarrab Khan to Bid and Partur. The imperial general did not come up with Mukarrab Khan; and likewise failed in an attack on Paranda, which belonged to the Bijapur kingdom. In the meantime there was another failure of rain in 1630, and a famine ensued throughout the Deccan and Gujarat, which delayed the operations of the imperial army in the direction of Daulatabad. The campaign was still maintained, and Nasir Khan was sent against Kandhar, where he defeated the Nizam Shahi army that was stationed there, and invested the fort. Mukarrab Khan marched to its relief, largely reinforced by a contingent from Bijapur; but was also defeated by the imperial troops. Azam Khan then came up and Kandhar was captured in 1631 [The whole country as far as Dharur was occupied, and Asaf Khan was sent against Bijapur. He was joined by Azam Khan, and having plundered Gulbarga, laid seige to Bijapur in 1632. The light troops of Bijapur cut off all grain and forage, and as there was great scarcity among the imperial troops, Asaf Khan raised the seige and retreated to Sholapur. The emperor appointed Mahabat Khan who was also made Khan Khanan.]. The Nizam Shahi king dismissed Mukarrab Khan, who went over to the Moghals. Fateh Khan, the son of Malik Ambar, was released from Daulatabad and appointed minister. He confined the king in 1632, and shortly afterwards put him to death, together with the principal nobles of Daulatabad.

Fateh Khan placed himself under the protection of the Moghals, and raised Husain, the son of Mahmud, to the throne. The emperor confirmed him in his appointment as regent, but demanded the royal jewels, etc.; and as Fateh Khan evaded compliance, an army was sent against him. Fateh Khan purchased peace by paying a heavy indemnity. He also agreed to pay tribute, and the territory captured by Sahaji Bhosle was restored to him. This set the Marathas against Fateh Khan, and Sahaji Bhosle joined a Bijapur army which was marching on Daulatabad. Fateh Khan appealed to Mahabat Khan, and offered to surrender Daulatabad to the imperial troops. The viceroy sent his son the Khan Zaman, who defeated a covering force of the king of Bijapur, and appeared at Daulatabad, but Fateh Khan had changed sides and refused to give up the fort. Mahabat Khan was at Zafarnagar when he heard this, and wrote to his son to make every effort to reduce the fort. The viceroy arrived in person at Daulatabad and superintended the siege. The Marathas and the king of Bijapur made several efforts to relieve the place, but were beaten off, and Daulatabad surrendered early in 1633, after a siege of 58 days. Husain, the last of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, was sent as a State prisoner to Gwalior in February 1633. Fateh Khan was subsequently allowed his liberty, and a pension was bestowed on him.

Prince Suja arrived with an army in 1633 and joined the Khan Khanan in an attack on Paranda; but the operations failed, and Moghals retired to Burhanpur. Sahaji Bhosle took advantage of their discomfiture, and setting up another Nizam Shahi prince, undertook to restore the failing fortunes of the dynasty. The Khan Khanan died soon afterwards at Burhanpur, and Sahaji occupied the whole of the western portion of the old dominions.

The emperor found it necessary to return to the Deccan in 1635, and brought three distinct armies consisting of 20,000 men each. Two of these were directed against the king of Bijapur. In 1636 Mahmud Adil Shah sued for peace. A portion of the Nizam Shahi territory was ceded to the king of Bijapur for a tribute of 80 lakhs of rupees a year, and the remainder was absorbed in the Moghal dominions. The emperor returned to Mandu, and prince Aurangzeb was appointed to the government of the Deccan. [The Moghal Deccan now consisted of four subhas (1) Daulatabad and Ahmadnagar called Subha of the Deccan with Daulatabad for capital; (2) Subha of Balaghat capital Nanded; (3) Subha of Berar, capital Ellichpur; and (4) Subha of Khandes, capital Burhanpur. The Jama or total revenue of the four provinces was five krores of rupees.] The expedition against Sahaji terminated with his surrender at Mahuli in 1637. He was allowed to retire into the service of the king of Bijapur; and the young Nizam Shahi prince whom he set up, was sent to prince Aurangzeb, and was taken to court. The captive prince was sent to the fort of Gwalior, in which two other princes of the same dynasty, Bahadur taken at Ahmadnagar in 1600, and Husain taken at Daulatabad in 1633, were incarcerated. The kingdom of Ahmadnagar was entirely extinguished, and became a province of the Moghal empire.

Moghal Viceroys of the Deccan

Prince Aurangzeb dispatched an expedition into Baglana in January 1638 which was successful. In the same year the Khan Zaman died at Daulatabad, and Sayasta Khan was appointed to succeed him in the command of the troops. There was peace for the next twenty years, when Shah Jahan completed the revenue settlement in the Deccan, and introduced the financial system of Todar Mall. In 1655 Mir Jumla, the prime minister of Golkonda, incurred the displeasure of Sultan Abdulla Kutb Shah and sought the protection of the Moghals. The emperor issued an order to the Kutb Shahi king, directing that Mir Jumla's son should be released; but Sultan Abdulla paid no attention to the emperor, and even treated Muhammad Amin, the son of Mir Jumla with great severity. Prince Aurangzeb was ordered to enforce compliance, and in 1656 marched suddenly on Hyderabad which was taken and plundered. After peace had been restored, the troops returned to Aurangabad and Mir Jumla was invited to Delhi, where he was invested with the office of Vazir. In the same year Muhammad Adil Shah died, and was succeeded by his son Ali Adil Shah, but Aurangzeb questioned the latter's right to succeed, and gave out that the youth was illegitimate. A Moghal army advanced in 1657, and Mir Jumla was appointed commander-in-chief, with Aurangzeb as his lieutenant. Bidar was captured and an engagement was fought near Kalyani after which the country was ravaged and Gulbarga occupied. Several other victories were gained by the Moghals, and the capital was speedily invested. The main body of the Bijapur army was away into the Karnatak, and the king was completely taken by surprise. He made most humble supplications for peace, but they were sternly rejected and the capitulation of Bijapur seemed inevitable when news reached Aurangzeb of Shah Jahan's serious illness. The overtures of Ali Adil Shah were accepted, and the siege of Bijapur was raised. The prince left Sultan Mu'azzam, his second son, in charge of the Deccan and having confined Mir Jumla in Daulatabad for an assumed act of disloyalty, left for North India and entered on that contest for empire in which he was finally successful.

Aurangzeb deposed Shah Jahan and was proclaimed emperor in 1658. Mir Jumla was released from Daulatabad the same year; and Sultan Mu'azzam, whom Aurangzeb had left in charge of the Deccan, was recalled. The emperor's maternal uncle Sayasta Khan was appointed to the viceroyalty, with instructions to oppose the incursions which the Marathas under Sivaji had begun to make into the Moghal possessions. Sayasta Khan marched on Poona, which he captured; but could make no impression on the Maratha strongholds. He and his second-in command, Jasvant Sing, were at first recalled in 1663, but the latter was allowed to remain, and prince Mu'azzam was again sent to the government of the Deccan.

In August 1664 Sivaji surprised and plundered Ahmadnagar and carried his depredations to the vicinity of Aurangabad. Prince Mu'azzam and Jasvant Sing were recalled in 1665, and Mirza Raja Jay Sing was appointed viceroy with Liler Khan as second in command. The new viceroy paid his respects to the prince at Aurangabad, and then proceeded to Poona, where he attacked the Marathas with great impetuosity. Sivaji was compelled to submit and in 1665 was taken into the imperial service. Raja Jay Sing and Diler Khan were next sent against Bijapur which they besieged, but were constantly harassed by the Deccan horse. The king of Golkonda also sent a relieving force, and the viceroy retired to Aurangabad. Raja Jay Sing was recalled in 1667, and prince Mu'azzam and Jasvant Sing were again sent to the Deccan.

Jasvant Sing was fond of money, and Sivaji gratified him with large presents. In return, the title of Raja was conferred on Sivaji, and his son's mansab of 5,000 horse was confirmed. Diler Khan, the second-in-command of the late Raia Jay Sing, was neither favourite with the prince, nor with Jasvant Sing. He was recalled from an expedition in 1668, and being apprehensive for his satety, delayed in coming. He subsequently arrived within three kos of Aurangabad, but removed almost immediately to make his representation at court. The prince accused Diler Khan of disobedience, and followed him with 60,000 men, but did not come up with Diler Khan, and encamped fifteen kos from Burhanpur. The emperor directed that prince Mu'azzam should return to Aurangabad, and that Diler Khan should proceed to Gujarat. In 1670 the Moghal-Maratha conflict was renewed. The Marathas plundered Khandes in December 1670, and in the following year Jasvant Sing was recalled. The emperor sent 40,000 men under Mahabat Khan into the Deccan in 1672. He was replaced by Bahadur Khan soon after. The Moghals laid siege to Salher, and as the Marathas advanced to its relief, he detached the greater part of his force under Ikhalas Khan, to oppose the Marathas. Ikhalas Khan was defeated, and the whole army retreated to Aurangabad.

Sultan Mu'azzam was recalled and Bahadur Khan Khan Jahan Bahadur, the Governor of Gujarat, was appointed viceroy of the Deccan. Khan Jahan adopted a defensive policy, although it was disapproved of by Diler Khan, his second-in-command, and the passes towards Khandes blocked. The Marathas however, worked round the hills and appeared before Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad. In 1673 a compact was entered into with the Marathas but two years later Sivaji again broke out, on the plea that Diler Khan had made some aggressions.

Khan Jahan defeated a body of Marathas near Lasura, about thirty miles from Aurangabad, and pursued them to a great distance. Sivaji was now preparing for a campaign in Southern India, and an accommodation was arrived at with Bahadur Khan.

In the meantime a quarrel arose with Bijapur, and a Moghal army advanced from Aurangabad against the Adil Shahi capital. The campaign was unsuccessful and Khan Jahan was recalled in 1677. The emperor also disapproved of the compact that had been entered into with Sivaji. Sultan Mu'azzam was again appointed viceroy, but Diler Khan retained the command in the field, and in 1679 a fresh expedition was sent against Bijapur. Sivaji ravaged the country up to Jalna, and ransacked this city for four days. A Moghal force under Ranmast Khan was hastily despatched from Aurangabad. Sivaji was attacked near Sangamner, and only escaped by the help of his guides.

The Emperor was dissatisfied with the progress of events in the Deccan, and both Sultan Mu'azzam and Diler Khan were recalled. Sivaji died in 1680; Khan Jahan Bahadur was reappointed viceroy of the Deccan, and during his term of office was constantly on the move against Sambhaji, son and successor of Sivaji.

By the end of January, 1681, the Marathas ravaged Berar and marching on Burhanpur, sacked the town completely. Bahadur Khan, rushed towards Burhanpur but was too late to save it. The Moghal-Maratha conflict was continuing in Baglana of the district of Nasik when the Emperor Aurangzeb hurriedly patching up a peace treaty with the Rana of Udaypur and descended into the Deccan in pursuit of his rebel son Akbar who had sought refuge with Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's aim was to crush the Marathas. He arrived at Burhanpur in November, 1681 and marched towards Aurangabad in March; 1682. Aurangzeb sent his renowned generals against Sambhaji. The Moghals made a descent in north Konkan under Hasan Khan, Ranmast Khan, and later Sahabuddin. Sambhaji beat off these attacks. A grand army equipped by Aurangzeb and led by his son Mu'azzam alias Shah Alam descended in south Konkan in 1683 A.D. It had to beat a disastrous retreat and Mu'azzam returned to the imperial camp at Ahmadnagar where Aurangzeb had arrived in November, 1683. During the next three years Aurangzeb directed his attention to the reduction of the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda which he achieved by the end of 1687. In February 1689 Sambhaji fell into the hands of the Moghals and was cruelly done to death by the order of Aurangzeb. The Moghals captured the Maratha capital, Rayagad and Sambhaji's wife Yesubai and son Sahu found themselves prisoners in the camp of Aurangzeb. Sambhaji's brother Rajaram, however, escaped to Jinji in Tamilnad in November, 1689. The Moghals had captured practically all the Maratha forts. It almost appeared that the Maratha State had ceased to exist. From 1690, the tide began to turn slowly against the Moghals. The Marathas led by able men such as Ramcandrapant Amatya, Sankran Narayan, Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav, Hanmantrav Nimbalkar, Pralhad Niraji, Parasurampant Pratinidhi, Nemaji Sinde and Parasoji Bhosle adopted the guerilla type of warfare and harried the Moghals in every part of the Deccan. They cut off supplies, blocked the roads, overran the military outposts of the Moghals and destroyed small detachments. The Moghals were continuously pursuing the Marathas in various directions but their activities produced little effect on the Marathas. The district of Bid which during the Moghal period was divided into the Sarkars of Bid and Dharur could not remain unaffected in this bitter contests of the Moghals and the Marathas. In 1690 when Aurangzeb was camping at Galgali in the district of Bijapur, communications between Aurangabad and Bijapur were seriously threatened by the Marathas. Aurangzeb had to detach Rav Dalpat Bundela, the Raja of Datia to guard the communications. Rav Dalpat's secretary Bhimsen Saxena has in his autobiography "The Tarikhe Dilkusha" described the conflict of Rav Dalpat against the Marathas in the district of Bid [From Moghal Ani Marathe by P. Setu Madhav Rao pp. 105.07.]. At this time Prince Bedar Bakht, the grandson of Aurangzeb, was returning from the north where he had been engaged in a campaign against the Jats. Rav Dalpat was operating in the district of Bid when he had been commissioned to convey the imperial artillery to Solapur. (Rav Dalpat met the prince at Causala in the district). At this time the Marathas had spread in the districts of Osmanabad and Bid. Rav Dalpat marched against them. He was joined by Mamur Khan, the Faujdar of Bid. After a stiff battle near Tuljapur when the Moghals had all but been enveloped by the Marathas, they were pushed back. Rav Dalpat then met Prince Bedar Bakht at Causala and escorted him to Solapur. Shortly after, Rav Dalpat was ordered to escort the envoy of Turan to Aurangabad. While returning from Aurangabad after accomplishing his object Rav Dalpat ran against heavy Maratha opposition at Deorai in the district of Bid. The Marathas 3,000 strong were led by Lakhmu Sinde. Rav Dalpat was accompanied by a big caravan of merchants and travellers. The Moghals had to fight desperately before the Maratha troops broke and fled, Lakhmu Sinde was wounded and captured. Rav Dalpat had to accomplish similar other missions. He was once ordered to convey the imperial treasury from Aurangabad to the imperial camp. How unsafe the roads were at this time can be illustrated by the fact that among the persons waiting to be escorted from Aurangabad were Kamgar Khan, the ex-governor of Oudh and the son of Jafar Khan, the ex-prime minister of Aurangzeb and Gopal Singh Candravat, the Raja of Rampura. The treasury was being brought from North India by Amanullah, the Mir Tuzuk (master of ceremonies). Rav Dalpat escorted the imperial officers and the treasury to Solapur. To guard against the Marathas the imperial Baksi, Baharamand Khan had his camp in the paragana of Kati (Osmanabad district). Rav Dalpat joined his forces with Baharamand Khan and taking every precaution brought the treasury safely to Solapur. At the end of May 1691 Rav Dalpat was commissioned to convey the elephants of the imperial camp to Bid for grazing purposes.

The disorder in the Deccan continued for long and the district of Bid was no exception. Meanwhile the emperor had removed his camp from Galgali in the district of Bijapur and had established himself at Brahmapuri in the district of Solapur in 1695. The Moghals and Marathas were engaged in a prolonged warfare in Tamilnad where the Maratha ruler Rajaram had his capital at Jinji. The fort at last fell to the Moghals in 1698 and Rajaram escaped to Visalgad in Maharastra. There was a resurgence of Maratha activities in the Deccan. The Moghals had with great difficulties maintained a precarious hold on the plains in the Maratha country but in spite of their constant efforts they had failed to recapture the forts seized by the Marathas in 1690 and 1691. Rajaram now decided to carry the warfare against the Moghals in Berar and Gondvana. He marched from Visalgad in November, 1699. The expedition was foiled due to the prompt efforts of Prince Bedar Bakht, Zulfikar Khan and other Moghal officers. Rajaram had to return to his homeland where he died shortly after on 2nd May, 1700.

Disappointed at the unsuccessful efforts of his generals to check the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to lead in person a campaign against the Maratha forts. The forts of Satara and Parali fell to the Moghals in April and June, 1700 respectively. The Marathas made repeated attacks on the Moghals and more than once, the imperial camp found itself in a virtual state of siege. In 1701 Aurangzeb arrived at Panhalgad to which he laid siege. It was while he was engaged in the siege of Panhala that Sir William Norris came to see him as ambassador from William III, the King of England. Proceeding from Surat, Sir William Norris passed through the districts of Khandes, Aurangabad, Bid, Osmanabad, Solapur, Sangli and Kolhapur before he reached Panhalgad. He passed through the district of Bid in February 1701. Shri Harihardas in his work "the Norris Embassy to Aurangzeb" (1699— 1702) has described Norris's journey through the district of Bid as follows: —

"The journey was continued next day over a soil so rich and fine that it might have been made for a garden, and towards the end of the day's journey, Norris ascended a considerable hill and encamped at "Mowsee Pondersee" (Midsangwi?)."

This town was situated, like the rest, in the middle of a large fertile plain, surrounded by mud walls, with a rivulet running by.

Bid was reached next day [On his way to Beed, Norris was impressed to see 800 camels empty going to Hoshangabad to fetch rice and flour for Prince Azam Shah's lashkar], a town, as Norris observed, very pleasantly situated in a fruitful valley, and approached for the distance of a mile through a continuous mango grove. A fine river [The Bendsura] of pure water ran round the town, which was the largest he had yet seen. The suburbs consisted of "little nasty thatch houses", but within the stone walls round the town were several handsome well-built stone houses. The gates of the town were large, high and strongly built. The town was well populated, and a great crowd of the inhabitants came to see the Ambassador's camp. Not far off was a cemetery in a garden, in which were some fine monuments; also three castles, but none of them of much strength. A high Moghal official was in residence, who lived in some state; for Norris saw several large elephants belonging to him. He was asked to show his dastak or passport to this official. It was a "large and rich Government", and a place of "very great trade", with considerable manufactures of several sorts of cloth, particularly coarse varieties, including cloth for tents, etc., in which it was the Moghal Army's main source of supply. All along the riverside could be seen cloth washing, whiting and drying.

About sunset Norris walked a quarter of a mile out of his camp up a hill in order to have a better view of the town: but as it was Ramzan, and the Muslims, who do not in this period eat till sunset, were preparing fires to cook their supper, the smoke prevented him from seeing very much of the surrounding country [P. 89 of Rawl. MS. C. 913.].

The most difficult and tedious part of the journey was now to come. The country was rugged and mountainous, higher and steeper than any through which the convoy had yet passed, upon "ye Top of wch Aurangzebe some years scince fought wth ye Sevagi (Sivaji) routed him, being forced to make his passage over this mountain, wch Sevagi (Sivaji) could not maintain". Norris wondered how the Moghal could have forced his way through when Sivaji's army was in possession of that ghat or mountain pass, which, it seemed to him, a small number might hold against thousands. "The Mogull", he wrote, "first had a battell wth ye Sevagi (Sivaji) att Aurengabad and beate him there, who retired to this Gatt (ghat) to Keepe ye Mogull from brakinge any farther into ye country, but Aurengzebe pursued him and beate him here [P. 90, ibid.]". The whole region appeared very wild, and the whole march was very fatiguing. There was, besides, a scarcity of water for Norris's retinue, so he thought it best to encamp at " Morman Parak Godee " (Moman Parakh-Gadhi).

Not much difficulty attached to the next stage of the Ambassador's journey. He passed the last mountain and marching through a populous town called "Chowsalee" (Cavsala), which lay higher than any town he had yet come to, reached "Pargawn" (Borganv). Nothing exciting was observed on the way except "a huge Deade elephant wch when wee came to have ye wind of almost poysond us ". The weather now began to be hot, and some of the retinue fell sick. One of the "eddys", Zani Beg, had died after being ill for some time. Unfortunately he concealed the true nature of his malady till it was too late to cure him; according to Norris's diagnosis, he "inflamed his blood by drinkinge spirits". Another bad companion of Zani Beg, formerly an Armenian Christian, also died, a 'Moore', and on learning this another of the same race and religion in Norris's retinue tore a piece of cloth, wrapped it in the " nature of a Crosse and put it into his bosome ". The Armenian was buried under a tree about two hundred yards from Norris's camp; here, having poured rose-water upon him and strewed sweet herbs, with some form of prayer, they laid him to rest. They fixed some sticks and twigs so as to keep the earth in order upon his coffin, and placed a basket of stones under his head to serve as a pillow. A woman who accompanied him, whether " wife or concubine" Norris did not know, " made mighty lamentation at his death and over his grave ye next morninge [Pp. 90-91, ibid.]".

The Ambassador proceeded through difficult and rugged mountainous country and reached Bhum on the afternoon of February 28th. The Marathas had spread all over the Deccan. Aurangzeb appointed Zulfikar Khan, Rav Dalpat and Ramsingh Hada to pursue the Maratha generals Dhanaji Jadhav, Bahirji Ghorpade and Hanumantrav Nimbalkar who were working havoc throughout the Deccan. In 1700 Zulfikar Khan had to march through Paranda, Asti, Nanded, Ausa and Udgir. A number of running battles were fought with the Marathas who practising guerilla tactics led the Moghals into a fruitless chase to the borders of the province of Hyderabad. In 1701 Zulfikar Khan was once again in pursuit of the Marathas throughout the Deccan. He had to march after them through the districts of Osmanabad, Bid, Aurangabad, Akola, Amravati and Nanded. Bhimsen Saxena, the historian who accompanied Zulfikar Khan in this campaign has given a graphic description of the desperate fights which the Moghals had to put up and the enveloping tactics of the Marathas.

The Moghals were on the whole losing in the fights with the Marathas. Aurangzeb was making efforts to capture the Maratha forts at enormous cost in men and money. The concentration of heavy Moghal forces with the emperor left the districts with hardly any Moghal troops. The Marathas overran the entire province of the Deccan and even penetrated into Gujarat and Malva. They began to collect Cauth and Sardesmukhi from every district and, set up a parallel authority over the province. They had their own Subhedars, Kamavisdars, Mokasadars and Rahdars to collect Cauth, Sardesmukhi, Ghasdana and custom duties. The Moghal officers of the districts, faujdars as they were called found themselves without resources to deal with the Marathas. There was no hope of reinforcements from the emperor's camp. The field armies sent out by the emperor were hardly more than small detachments. Although they were led by generals like Zulfikar Khan, they could only save themselves with greatest difficulty from incessant Maratha attacks. Faced with this problem the Moghal Faujdars entered into understandings with the Marathas by surrendering considerable revenues from the districts under their charge to them. The foundation was thus laid for the later pledge of Cauth and Sardesmukhi which the Marathas were to make on the revenues of the Deccan from the successors of Aurangzeb.

Exhausted by his incessant and fruitless campaigns of capturing Maratha forts Aurangzeb returned to Ahmadnagar in 1706 where he died a year later on 20th February, 1707. With the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the stage was set for a civil war among his sons. At the time of the emperor's death, the eldest son. Prince Mu'azzam was the governor of Kabul and Punjab. The second son Prince Azam was within a short distance of emperor's camp near Ahmadnagar. The third and the youngest son, Prince Kambaks was on his way to Bijapur of which he had been appointed Governer. After the death of his father Prince Azam marched to the North. Sahu, the son of Sambhaji and grandson of Sivaji was allowed to leave the imperial camp and returned to the Deccan. Prince Azam faced the army of his elder brother, Prince Mu'azzam, in the field of Jajau. In the battle Azam and his son Bedar Bakht lost their lives while Prince Mu'azzam ascended the throne as emperor Shah Alam Bahadur Shah. Zulfikar Khan who had accompanied Azam to the North had been appointed as the viceroy of the Deccan. The province was however administered by his deputy, Daud Khan Panni. Prince Kambaks who had seized Hyderabad refused to come to terms with Bahadur Shah. The emperor had to march to the Deccan against him. In the battle of Hyderabad fought on 3rd January 1709, Prince Kambaks lost his life. The Maratha chief Nemaji Sinde had joined the emperor in his fight against Kambaks. For these services he was rewarded by being created a mansabdar of 7,000 and 5,000 horse. His sons and other relatives too were elevated as mansabdars. A major portion of the district of Bid was handed over as a fief to Nemaji. Khan Khan ruefully remarks that about 1,000 imperial mansabdars were displaced from the district of Bid and other fertile mahals to make room for Nemaji Sinde.

Daud Khan Panni continued to administer the province of the Deccan on behalf of Zulfikar Khan till 1713. The emperor Bahadur Shah died in 1712 A.D. Following a civil war among his sons, the eldest son Jahandar Shah ascended the throne. However he ruled for a very short time. He was overthrown by his nephew Farrukhsiyar who had advanced from Bihar against his uncle. Sayyad Abdullah and Sayyad Husain Ali Khan known in history as the famous Sayyad brothers supported Farrukhsiyar in the war against Jahandar Shah. The latter was defeated, captured and put to death. Zulfikar Khan who wielded all power under Jahandar Shah was also put to death (1713 A.D.). Farrukhsiyar now ascended the throne as emperor. Sayyad Abdullah became the prime minister while Sayyad Husain Ali Khan was appointed as the Baksi. In the arrangement which followed the accession of Farrukhsiyar, Mir Kamruddin Cin Kilic Khan Nizam-ul-mulk was appointed as the viceroy of the Deccan. David Khan Panni, the deputy viceroy was transferred as Governor of Gujarat.

Nizams of Hyderabad

Nizam-ul-mulk thus became the founder of the Nizam dynasty in the Deccan. This family ruled in Hyderabad till 1948. The family of Nizam-ul-mulk belonged to Central Asia. Khwaja Abid, the grandfather of Nizam-ul-mulk migrated from Samarkand and obtained service under Aurangzeb in 1658 A.D. His son Sahabuddin known in history by his title Gaziuddin Firoz Jung also migrated from Central Asia in 1670 and rapidly rose to positions of command under Aurahgzeb. Khwaja Abid was killed in the siege of Golkonda in 1687. His son Sahabuddin and grandson Mir Kamruddin. the future Nizam-ul-mulk were present in the Deccan campaign of Aurarigzeb, till the emperor's death in 1707. Sahabuddin served as the Governor of Bijapur and Governor of Berar. Then he was transferred in 1708 to Gujarat as Governor where he died during the next year. At the time of the death of Aurangzeb, Nizam-ul-mulk who had been born in 1671 was the Governor of Bijapur. He repaired to the imperial court after Bahadur Shah ascended the throne. For sometime he held the post of Governorship of Oudh but later went into retirement during the later years of Bahadur Shah and the short reign of Jahandar Shah. After his father's death Nizam-ul-mulk became the leader of the Turani nobles in the Moghal court. The Sayyad brothers who had now become the virtual dictators of the Moghal empire were anxious to conciliate Nizam-ul-mulk. He was therefore appointed as the viceroy of the Deccan where he arrived in 1713.

The affairs of the province were in great disorder. Sahu had succeeded in enlisting to his side the principal Maratha Chiefs. He crowned himself as king in 1708 A.D. He was however opposed by his cousins Sivaji and Sambhaji, the sons of Rajaram. Tarabai the mother of Sivaji, set up on behalf of her son Sivaji a new principality at Kolhapur. A long civil war ensued among the Marathas with the Chiefs joining Tarabai or Sahu. The Maratha Chiefs had however spread all over the Deccan levying Cauth and Sardesmukhi, Nizam-ul-mulk's first task was to establish order in his province. He had to battle constantly against the Marathas. His aim was to dislodge them from the positions they had established in the province. He took advantage of the factions among the Marathas. He also lured away some principal Maratha Chiefs to his service. Among his adherents were Rav Rambha Nimbalkar and Candrasen Jadhav, the latter, the commandar-in-chief of Sahu. The ruling house of Kolhapur found their greatest partisan and supporter in Nizam-ul-mulk. During this brief period of two years 1713—1715 the Nizam-ul-mulk administered the Deccan. The Marathas had to be very much on the defensive against him. Their opportunity came in 1715 when Nizam-ul-mulk was transferred from the Deccan and replaced by Sayyad Husain Ali Khan. The shrewd Pesva of Sahu, Balaji Visvanath, was now at the helm of affairs. The intrigue of the emperor Farrukhsiyar against his prime minister Sayyad Abdullah and the latter's brother Sayyad Husain Ali Khan forced Sayyad Husain Ali Khan to seek the co-operation of the Marathas against the emperor. This was achieved but at a price. Sayyad Husain Ali Khan agreed to the collection of Cauth and Sardesmukhi by the Marathas throughout the six provinces of the Deccan. The Marathas accompanied Sayyad Husain Ali Khan to Delhi and after the downfall of Farrukhsiyar obtained royal confirmation of the claims to Cauth and Sardesmukhi allowed by Sayyad Husain Ali Khan.

In 1719 Nizam-ul-mulk who had been appointed the governor of Malva rose against the Sayvad brothers and marched to the Deccan. Savyad Husain Ali Khan's general Dilavar Khan and Alam Ali Khan the nephew, and Deputy of Husain Ali Khan were defeated and killed while fighting against Nizam-ul-mulk Nizam-ul-mulk now established himself firmly in the Deccan, Next year saw the downfall of the Sayyad brothers and elevation of Nizam-ul-mulk as prime minister of Moghal empire. He took charge of his new post, in 1722. But tired of court intrigues retired to the Deccan in 1724 when he crushed Mubariz Khan the governor of Hyderabad in the battle of Sakharkheda which he later renamed Fatteh Kharda fought in October 1724. From this date the Nizam became virtually independent of Moghal power. In the next two years the Nizam consolidated his hold in the eastern parts of the province. His real enemies, however, were the Marathas who under the dynamic leadership of Pesva Bajirav were fast growing into an all-India power. In 1727 Nizam-ul-mulk opened his campaign against the Marathas. Bajirav, also made his preparations and with his forces surrounded him at Palkhed where a battle was fought in March 1728 and forced him to sign a treaty by which the Nizam agreed to acknowledge Sahu as the head of the Marathas, and as entitled to collect Cauth and Sardesmukhi in the Deccan. This treaty is a landmark in the history of the Nizams as the Marathas now obtained a full right to post their officers for the collection of Cauth and Sardesmukhi in the territory of the Nizam. Shortly after this campaign, the Nizam received an addition of strength by the desertion of the Maratha general Sultanji Nimbalkar to his side. The Nizam welcomed the arrival of Sultanji and gave him the district of Bid. a number of paraganas in the district of Fatehabad Dharur (now in Bid district) and the paragana of Pathri in Berar. It may be noted that during the Moghal period, the taluka of Bid formed a separate district. Major portion of the present district of Bid was under the Sarkar or district of Fatehabad Dharur. The district of Bid was estimated to yield an income of about 6,89,000 rupees, while the Sarkar of Dharur which consisted of 11 mahals or paraganas was estimated to yield an income of about 6,30,196 rupees. Sultanji Nimbalkar made Bid his headquarters. The family administered the district for a long time. Sultanji Nimbalkar died in the year 1748 A.D. In the same year Nizam-ul-mulk died and was succeeded by his son Nasirjung. The latter confirmed the fief of Sultanji on his son Hanmantrav who was given the title of Sultanji II. The family served in the Nizam's fights against the Marathas. After the murder of Nasirjung and Muzaffarjung, Salabatjung, the third son of Nizam-ul-mulk became the Nizam with the assistance of the French in 1751 A.D. It was during the time of Salabatjung that the Nizam lost the province of Khandes and the districts of Ahmadnagar, Sangamner. Nasik, Jalna, Solapur and Bijapur to the Marathas. In 1760 the Pesva Balaji Bajirav who had succeeded his father Bajirav in 1740 moved against the Nizam Salabatjung and his brother Nizam Ali Khan. While the Nizam was on his way from Ausa (Osmanabad district) to Dharur (Bid district) to join his forces with those of Hanmantrav Nimbalkar the Marathas attacked him and annihilated the rear guard of the Nizam's army at Tandulja on 3rd February 1760 A. D. This battle is known in the history as the battle of Udgir. It was as result of this battle that the Nizam lost the districts in Western Maharastra referred to above.

The third battle of Panipat (1761) was a great disaster for the Marathas. The Pesva Balaji died shortly after and the Nizam was not show to take advantage of the difficulties of the young Pesva Madhavrav. He marched against Poona in the winter of 1761. In the following year he once more took advantage of the differences between the Pesva Madhavrav and his uncle Raghunathrav and marched against Madhavrav as an ally of Raghunathrav. As a result of this campaign the Nizam obtained practically all that he had lost at Udgir. However, even before the treaty had come into effect and territory exchanged the Marathas joined their forces and started a campaign against the Nizam. At this time Salabatjung, the Nizam had been deposed by his brother Nizam Ali Khan who had seized power. Nizam Ali Khan marched against Poona which he sacked in April 1763. The Marathas led by Madhavrav and Raghunathrav devastated the Nizam's territory to the very walls of the city of Hyderabad. Hearing of the sack of Poona they hurriedly marched back. The Nizam left Poona and aimed at camping at Bidar for the rainy season. He was however persuaded to move towards Aurangabad. On his way to that city Nizam Ali Khan arrrived at Raksasbhavan (in the district of Bid) on the banks of the river Godavari. The Marathas were closely following his movements. The Nizam with a part of his army had crossed the river Godavari while his divan Vitthal Sundar was still on the southern bank with a large force. The Marathas led by Madhavrav and Raghunathrav suddenly fell upon the Nizam's army in the memorable battle of Raksasbhavan fought on 10th August 1763. "While the Nizam's army led by his divan Vitthal Sundar Pratapvant was annihilated by the Marathas on the southern bank of the Godavari, Nizam Ali Khan had to remain as a helpless spectator of the carnage. The Nizam's divan Vitthal Sundar was killed in the battle while many of his generals were captured by the Marathas. Nizam Ali Khan fled to Aurangabad where he was closely invested by the Marathas. In the treaty which followed the Nizam surrendered to the Pesva territory that had been already secured at Udgir four years before, but which the self-seeking Raghunathrav had given back to the Nizam. The Marathas virtually forced the Nizam to appoint as his divan Ruknuddaulah who was friendly to the Marathas. Under' Ruknuddaullah's influence Nizam Ali Khan who had now, following the death of Salabatjung under suspicious circumstances, became the Nizam, co-operated with the Marathas in their campaign against the rising power of Hyder Ali of Mysore.

Hanmantrav the son of Sultanjl Nimbalkar continued to hold the fief of Bid and a major portion of the Sarkar of Dharur (now in Bid district). He died in the year 1763, and his fief was conferred on his young son Dhanpatrav. It appears that Nizam Ali Khan was not satisfied with the behaviour of Dhanpatrav. The latter was slack in rendering services to Nizam Ali Khan in his various campaigns. In 1773 Nizam Ali Khan confiscated the fief of the NimbalKar family leaving a small estate for the maintenance of Dhanpatrav. The confiscated fief was conferred on Sarf-ul-mulk. the brother of Ruknuddaullah, the divan. In the Anglo-Maratha war which followed, the assassination of Narayanrav Pesva, the brother of Madhavrav, and the flight of Raghunathrav to the English, the Nizam maintained a neutral attitude. Later, in 1785, the Marathas and the Nizam united to march against Tipu Sultan of Mysore. In 1790 the British, the Marathas and the Nizam concluded a tripartite alliance and marched against Tipu. Tipu was defeated and as a result had to relinquish half of his dominion which was divided among the allies.

The long peace which had been established between the Marathas and the Nizam after the battle of Raksasbhavan in 1763 was broken in 1794 when the Marathas pressed their demand for the payments of arrears of Cauth from the Nizam. Nizam Ali Khan had without any basis presumed that the British would go to his help. Sir John Shore, the Governor General, decided to remain neutral in this conflict, an attitude no doubt influenced by an appraisal of Maratha power. Nizam Ali Khan, had also felt that Mahadji Sinde would come to his assistance against the Pesva. This attitude was based purely on wishful thinking. If at all there was any justification for this presumption on the part of Nizam Ali Khan it was removed by the untimely death of Mahadji Sinde in Poona on February 12, 1794, following a brief illness. The Nizam's army advanced and camped at Kharda on the borders of the district of Bid. The battle of Kharda, fought on the 11th of March 1795, ended in a disastrous defeat for Nizam Ali Khan. The Nizam had to part with a large territory. He was also forced to hand over his minister Arastujah Mosir-ul-mulk Azam-ul-umra to the Marathas.

After this humiliating treaty the Nizam returned to Hyderabad. Shortly after the Pesva Savai Madhavrav died as a result of a fall from his palace (October 1795). This was the signal for widespread confusion in the internal affairs of the Maratha state. Arastujah Mosir-ul-mulk, the prime minister of the Nizam also known as Azam-ul-Umra, now in detention at Poona took full advantage of the confusion and succeeded in obtaining his release. He also got the terms of the treaty of Kharda, signally modified to the advantage of the Nizam. The result was the territories handed over to the Pesva comprising practically the whole of Marathawada were retained by the Nizam.

Nizam Ali Khan, however, felt the helplessness of his situation as against the Marathas and under the advice of his prime minister moved closer to the British. In 1798 a treaty was concluded between the Nizam and the British Government, by which a subsidiary force of 6,000 sepoys and a proportionate number of guns was assigned to the Nizam's service. He on his part agreed to pay a subsidy of 24 lakhs for the support of the force. On the fail of Srirangpatam and the death of Tipu Sultan, the Nizam participated largely under the Treaty of Mysore (1799) in the division of territory, and his share was increased because of the pesva's withdrawal from that treaty.

In 1800 a fresh treaty was concluded between the Nizam and the British, by which the subsidiary troops were augmented by two battalions of infantry and one regiment of cavalry, for payment of which the Nizam ceded all the territories which had accrued to him under the treaties of 1792 and 1799, known as the Ceded Districts of Madras. The Nizam on his part agreed to employ all this force (except two battalions reserved to guard his person), together with 6,000 foot and 9,000 horse of his own troops, against the enemy in time of war.

About 1802 Nizam Ali Khan's health was in a precarious condition, and Sinde and Bhosle disappointed by the reinstatement, by the British of Bajirav the last of the Pesvas, prepared to resort to arms. To meet the preparations made by the Marathas, the subsidiary force, consisting of 6,000 infantry and two regiments of cavalry, accompanied by 15,000 of the Nizam's troops, took up a position at Paranda on the western frontier of the Nizam's Dominions. General Wellesley was ordered to co-operate with this force in aid of the Pesva, with 8,000 infantry and 1,700 cavalry. But before the arrival of General Wellesley at Poona, Holkar had left, and on his way to Malwa had plundered some of the Nizam's villages, and levied a contribution on Aurangabad. On hearing of this, Colonel Stevenson advanced towards the Godavari with the whole force under him, and was joined by General Wellesley near Jalna. The next day (September 23) the memorable battle of Assaye was fought by General Wellesley, followed shortly afterwards by the battle of Adganv, which completely crushed the Marathas, and secured the Nizam's territories. Nizam Ali Khan died in 1803, and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Jah. Widespread disorders continued throughout the Nizam's dominions. Under the terms of the treaty of 1800 the Nizam was bound to supply to the British in times of their need a force of 6,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. In the Anglo-Maratha War the Nizam's force proved no better than a rabble. The British therefore took up the reform of the Nizam's troops to be paid by the Nizam but recruited, trained and controlled by the British. This was the origin of the contingent forces of the Nizam. They were nominally in the Nizam's service but control over them with regard to their formation, location and disposal vested solely with the Resident. These contigent forces were spread in all parts of the State. In Maratha-wada they and elements of the subsidiary force were stationed at Aurangabad, Jalna, Mominabad, Hingoli, and a few other places. Throughout the period from 1815 to 1857 these troops were engaged in putting down revolts and rebellions against the Nizam's government. These rebellions were at once both the cause and the effect of the maladministration of the government.

The third and the last Maratha war was fought in 1817 between Bajirav, the last Pesva, and the British. The western region of the state of Hyderabad was marked by great disturbances such as the eruption of the Pendharis and the rising of the Bhils.