INDUSTRIES

COTTAGE INDUSTRIES

Most oil the cottage industries in the district are age-old and hereditary. Among these, cotton-weaving, wool-weaving, leather working, carpentry and black-smithy, brass-ware making, pottery and brick making, coir and rope making and neera and palm-gur making are important. During the last century, these industries were carried out by hand processes and no motive power was used. The impact of modern improved technique made very little effect on the basic structure of most of these industries.
These cottage industries are either worked individually or on co-operative basis providing employment to a number of village artisans. People employed through co-operatives numbered more than 2,500. There are training schools at Bhir, Kaij and Parali which impart instruction in improved technique to the artisans.

It is the policy of the government to encourage and develop cottage industries and industrial co-operatives. They have made steady progress in Bhir district, where important cottage industries like weaving, tanning, leather working, fibre and bamboo working are in the hands of communities which are amongst the most backward in the state. They follow a crude technique of production which is transmitted from father to son. Their illiteracy and lack of financial resources make them conservative and reluctant to follow improved methods of production.

The Co-operation and Industries department is charged with the responsibility of taking all possible steps to ensure the promotion and furtherance of cottage and village industries and handicrafts by providing financial as well as technical assistance to them. The ultimate object of the programme of this department is to encourage the individual artisans to form co-operatives and work on their own by taking advantage of the technical and financial assistance.

At the end of the First Plan there were 22 industrial co-operatives in the district, with a membership of 965 and working capital amounting to Rs. 1.17 lakhs. In the Second Plan, the number of industrial co-operatives which stood at 22 in 1956 rose to 37 in 1957-53 and 59 in 1959.

There were as many as 93 industrial co-operatives in the district in 1961. Up to 1961, weavers co-operatives received help in the form of rebate of Rs. 57,653 and a grant of Rs. 23,600. Other co-operatives received assistance to the extent of Rs. 73,500. The following statement gives the extent of employment provided by these societies.

Employment in Industrial co-operatives of Bhir District

Handloom Industry

The handloom industry plays a prominent role in the economic development of the country as it provides some gainful employment to millions of people living in mofussil areas. It requires a very small capital investment which enables even the poor artisans to raise the requisite amount through their meagre incomes. It calls for little skill and involves little risk. It was the most important cottage industry in the Bhir district for a long time. While the wool-weaving industry suffered a set-back during the decade 1901—1911 due to the introduction of machinery, the position of handlooms strengthened during the same period. The yarn was spun by the weavers themselves in olden times, but the introduction of mill-made yarn wiped out the hand-spun yarn. The average cost of an Indian loom was about Rs. 20 in 1921, but varied according to the material of the loom and the texture of cloth woven. The number of handlooms in the district with fly-shuttle and without fly shuttle was 904 and 193, respectively in 1921. It increased to 1,642 (total) during the decade 1921—1931. The number of looms registered was 1,540 in 1958-59.

The important centres of the industry were Parali, Ambejogai and Ghatnandur where the industry tended to concentrate. Genrerally the weavers belonged to the Koshti or Sali community.

The tools and equipment required were a loom and its accessories like shuttles, creel, bobbins, healds, pirns, dobbies and also fani, ghodi (stand), etc. Two types of looms were prevalent in the district, viz., fly shuttle and pit, but fly shuttle looms were popular. The Co-operative department provided some parts like chain automtic dobbies, iron reeds and varnish healds. Dobby, used for desigining the borders of sadi or lugade, healds and reed's were avialable in the local market. The carpenters could make the fly shuttle looms themselves. The price of a loom usually of the breadth 1,270 and 1,320.8 mm. (50" and 52") was Rs. 300 approximately and that of a pit-loom between Rs. 75 and Rs. 100.

The raw materials, required for weaving, were yarn, artifical silk and jar. The price of yarn per bundle of 0.98 grams (10 lbs.) varied between Rs. 15 and Rs. 40 depending on the quality of yarn. The raw materials were purchased from local markets, and Bombay and other important weaving centres like Sholapur, Jalna, Latur and Nanded.

The products of the industry included saris of different varieties and lengths, kham, coarse dhotis and shirtings. The market for the product was the district itself including such important marker centres, viz., Parali, Ambejogai and Bhir. Generally the weavers owned their looms.

The co-operative societies provide them the raw materials and take back the product after paying them the weaving charges. The members of the family undertake the various preparatory works like winding, warping and sizing. Men generally weave and women and children carry out the subsidiary and preliminary processes involved in weaving. Generally one loom requires the services of three persons for the preparatory and weaving process.

The importance of the handloom industry as a source of income to millions and as a means of decentralization of industries is recognised by the Government. The industry has, therefore, received encouragement through various schemes and in various forms. Special attention was given to the formation of co-operative societies. There are 1,540 looms in the district of which 957 were under the co-operatives in 1958-59. There were 10 hand-loom weavers co-operative societies with a membership of 1,123. The society at Wadawani was the biggest in the district, with 537 looms. The industry suffered set-backs as a result of relaxation of controls on yarn and many looms became idle. Some of the weavers have left their villages and migrated to other prosperous weaving centres in Sholapur and Ahmadnagar districts.

Finance and Co-operation.—There were 5 co-operative societies of handloom weavers in 1956-57, 10 in 1958-59 and 11 in 1960. The district co-operative bank extends credit facilities to these societies. The assistance received in the form of grants and loans by the societies in 1960 amounted to Rs. 29,903 and Rs. 8,101, respectively. The assistance is given for improved tools and implements, mobile van for the sale of handloom cloth in different villages, rebate on the sale, etc. Government have established a training school at Bhir. The number of students in the school was 15 in 1959-60.

The village Wadawani in Kaij tahsil is famous for the turban making industry, and about 600 families are engaged in this industry. A co-operative society, established here in 1952, has 545 members and a share capital of Rs. 16,000. The members have about 700 looms but many of them are idle due to accumulation of stocks. Some artisans have left the village in search of employment at Manjlegaon, Ahmadnagar, Pathardi, Yeola, Ichalkaranji and Bhir.

The society is finding it difficult to obtain imported raw material due to import restrictions. Hence it switched over to the production of saris from 1961.

The fibre known as chamak, of inferior quality, was available and was brought from Bombay. The turbans varied in length and the cost of a turban cloth, 5.486 metres (6 yards) in length varied between Rs. 4 and Rs. 6 and that of a 6.400 metres (7 yards) piece between Rs. 7 and Rs. 9. The industry remains fully engaged during summer season while during the remaining period artisans weave khadi. The society flourished during 1952 and 1959 and earned a net profit aggregating to a lakh of rupees. While turbans found a market in the various districts of Marathwada and Barsi, Sholapur and Ahmadnagar, the market for saris was mainly local. Saris produced were of Ichalkaranji pattern. They were made of 40 and 60 count yarn and had a length of 7.315 to 8.229 metres (8 to 9 yards). The cost ranged between Rs. 11 and Rs. 16. Roughly one sari or one turban is woven in a day on a loom, and the weaver thus earns between Re. 1.00 and Rs. 1.75 per day.

Oil crushing

Before the introduction of decorticators and expellers in the process of extraction of oil, the oil ghanis were used for oil crushing. The industry was in the hands of Teli community and was an important component of the self-sufficient village economy. The introduction of machines had an adverse effect on the industry and its importance declined. However artisans still carry on this industry against heavy odds.

The industry is mainly located at Bhir, Ambejogai, Renapur, Parali, Ghatnandur and Ashti. The artisan along with his family members works the industry but occasionally employment is provided to outside labour as well. Oil is extracted from groundnut, safflower (karadi) and sesamum (til). Crushing is generally restricted to groundnut which could be accounted for by the production of groundnut on a large scale in the district. Besides edible oil-seeds, non-edible oil-seeds like castorseed and linseed are crushed at some places. The oil-seeds are purchased in local markets at Parali, Bhir, etc.

A wooden ghani is used by the oilman for crushing the oilseeds. Most of the ghanis are old fashioned and the use of nutan ghani or Wardha ghani is not common. A ghani consists of a wooden or stone mortar and a wooden lat (a large pestle) worked by a bullock. A country ghani crushes about 54.531 kg. (120 lbs.) of shelled groundnut and produces about 13.607 to 15.874 kg. (30 to 35 lbs.) of oil and 38.555 kg. (85 lbs.) of oilcake per day.

The groundnut shells are removed with a wooden rod and the husk is separated from the seeds. Afterwards the seeds are crush-ed in the ghani and water is sprinkled over the seeds twice or thrice in the process. The oil that is extracted, is collected in the pot. The oilcake is removed after the complete extraction of oil contents. The oil is then filtered. The whole process takes about two and a half hours. An oilman crushes oil-seeds equivalent to about what three ghanis would require per day.

The oil thus extracted is not pure and contains some colloidal impurities. It, therefore, fetches a lower price than the mill oil in the market. The yield of oil is also less. The price of this oil is about Rs. 200 per kilogram while oilcake is sold at about Rs. 35 for a palla of 111.973 kg. (120 seers). The market for oil as well as oilcakes is mainly local and is confined to the district.

An outside labourer, when hired on wages, gets between Rs. 1.50 and Rs. 2 per day. The industry is seasonal and works for about 8 to 10 months in a year. The oil-seeds cost more in the rainy season and the oilmen have to contract loans to store oil-seeds for the season. Rainy season is comparatively a dull season.
There were 14 co-operative societies of oilmen in 1962. Out of them 10 worked perennially and the rest were seasonal. The Khadi and Village Industries Board in 1963 gave a loan of Rs. 11,675 and a grant of Rs. 42,285 to these societies. Govern-ment assistance for purchase of new ghanis and for establishment of training centres was also given. Similarly loans were granted for the manufacture of soap from non-edible oils.

Leather Working

Tanning is the hereditary occupation of the Dhors, and leather working is that of the Chambhars. Though artisans carry or their business in small villages, the tahsil places and the commercial and industrial towns are the main centres. However, the industry as a whole, has suffered from the competition of machine made goods. The important centres of the industry are Kada, Neknur, Parali, Khodasawargaon, Ghatnandur and Ambejogai Artistic footwears are manufactured at Ghatnandur, Parali and Ambejogai.

Chrome leather, tanned-leather, hides, skins, etc., are the basic materials required in leather-working. Tanned-hides and leather are bought from the local markets or directly from the Dhor-Chrome leather is available from the leather merchants in Bhir Parali and Ambejogai, who purchase it at Akola, Ahmadnagar and Bombay. The cost of hide varied between Rs. 25 and Rs. 60 per piece according to the quality and size. Chrome leather was priced at Rs. 4 per 0.09259 square metres (square foot).

Leather-working requires tools like stitching awls (ari), leather knives (rapi), cutting nippers, eyelet setter, sharpening stone, hammer and a pair of scissors. A complete set of these tools costs the artisan about Rs. 50. The well-to-do artisans have their own sewing machines.

The artisans make shoes, chappals, slippers and other footwear Articles like mot and pakhal, used in agricultural operations, and also manufactured. The price of a mot varied between Rs. 100 and Rs. 150, and that of a pakhal between Rs. 50 and Rs. 75. A pair of shoes costs Rs. 15 and that of chappals between Rs. 100 and Rs. 6. Fancy articles like purses and money-bags are produced at Kada in Ashti tahsil. Leather goods are also manufactured according to the design ordered by the customer.

In big establishments artisans are hired on piece wages and are paid differently according to the articles produced, and their craftsmanship. Their daily earnings vary from Rs. 2 to Rs. 3. The market for the products is confined to the district. The industry provides employment throughout the year.

The artisans have formed co-operative societies to solve the difficulties faced by them. Government have extended financial help to them in the form of grants and loans.

Training schools are established at Kada (Ashti tahsil), Neknur (Bhir tahsil) and Pimpalwadi (Patoda tahsil) where artisans are imparted training in tanning and leather working and uses of improved tools.

Tanning

Since long, tanning has been a hereditary occupation of the Dhor community.

The main centres of the industry are Parali, Ambejogai, Ghat-nandur, Kada, Ashti, Bhir, Neknur and Pimpalwadi. Raw hides and skins of buffaloes, bullocks, cows, sheep and goat are purchased from the Mahars by the Dhors. The former flay the dead animals.

The price of a raw hide varies between Rs. 10 and Rs. 30. The raw hide has to be tanned before it can be used. Tanning requires hirda (myrobalan), babhul bark, alum and lime. The prices of hirda and babhul bark are Rs. 40 and Rs. 30 per quintal, respectively. Alum and lime cost Rs. 21 per kilogram and Re. 1 per 15 kilograms, respectively. The raw materials are purchased from Parali, Bhir and Bombay.

The equipment necessary for tanning includes wooden mallets, rapi, art, vbaran, axe, barrels, and a few tubes. The set of equipment costs about Rs. 250. Raw hides are actually tanned in lime pits and washing tanks. The construction of a pit costs about Rs. 500.

Tanning process: The hide is at first macerated in lime water to separate hair, fat and flesh from it. After the hide is well soaked, hair is scrapped with a scraper and fat and flesh are removed with the rapi. It is then washed and soaked in a solution of babhul bark, hirda and water. Soaking is repeated thrice to ran a hide thoroughly. The hide is then tied in the shape of a bag which now contains a stronger solution of babhul bark and hirda water. It is then exposed to the sun and washed again on the eighth day and dried. This completes the process. Generally members of the family between them divide the various stages of the tanning process. The price of a tanned hide varies from Rs. 25 to Rs. 60, depending upon its size, thickness and quality. Hides used for the soles of footwear are sold in the local markets on bazar days.

A family of four can tan about 15 hides in a month which fetch them a gross income of about Rs. 500 to Rs. 700.

Five co-operative societies of tanners have been formed for the benefit of artisans and loans and grants are given for repairs of old pits, construction of new ones and establishment of tanning centres by the co-operative societies. The Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board has also given financial assist-ance to the artisans for purchase of tools and for other purposes.

Gupti-Making

Bhir town had been and is famous for gupti-making. It is an uncommon cottage industry in the Marathwada region and is localised in Bhir.

The tools and equipment used by the artisans are an anvil a blower, two grinders, a hammer, files and sandshi. The whole set of tools costs about Rs. 750. Gupti making requires steel German-silver and brass as basic materials. Wooden blocks varnish and French polish are used for making the cases and handles of the guptis, knives and razors. The basic material is brought from Bombay directly. Other items are locally available.

The steel is at first heated in a sufficient degree to give it a proper shape on the anvil. It is then sharpened on the grinder which is worked by three persons. The surface is again smoothen-ed and polished. The artisans also make other products such as knives, penknives, razors, scissors and adkitta (nut-cracker). The price of a gupti varies between Rs. 9 and Rs. 20. The products are marketed in Hyderabad, Aurangabad and Poona districts. About 30 persons are engaged in this cottage industry. Government grants loans for the purchase of tools and raw materials.

Blacksmithy

Blacksmithy is the hereditary occupation of Lohars (blacksmiths) who make and repair agricultural implements and tools. Formerly the services of the artisans were at the disposal of the villages under the baluta system, for which they received payment in kind. The system is now fast disappearing and its prevalence could be noted only in some parts of the district. Parali, Ambejogai, Bhir, Ghatnandur and Georai are some of the important centres of the industry. The profession demands hard work and considerable skill.

The blacksmiths produce articles like frying flat pans, buckets, axles of bullock carts, ghamelis and nails. To produce the articles they require iron sheets with gauges varying from 10 to 30, stee sheets and steel bars, iron bars f square, round as well as flat)• Old tins and scrap metal are utilised for petty repairing jobs.

The tools of a blacksmith consist of an anvil or airan, a blower, a set of chisels, a hammer and a set of chimtas. The whole set costs about Rs. 300 to Rs. 500. The home of the artisan is gene-rally his place of work. The blacksmiths in villages devote their time to the making of agricultural implements like plough, showel, pick axes, sickles and blades of harrows. The market for the products of the artisan is purely local.

Blacksmiths are generally busy throughout the year. It is only in the rainy season that they occasionally face unemployment and then turn to agricultural labourers. The earnings of an artisan vary between Rs. 3 and Rs. 5 per day.

Seven blacksmiths' co-operative societies have been formed at different places in the district and the societies extend financial assistance and technical guidance to the artisan. Improved tools and equipments are provided by the Block Development authorities in the training centres where artisans are imparted systematic training in blacksmithy. Such training centres are located at Neknur (Bhir tahsil), Khiled (Ashti tahsil) and Ambejogai.

Brick and Pottery

This industry is old and has not dwindled in importance even with the passage of time. This is because of the house building activities which have been an integral part of our life in the past as well as the present. The industry is generally confined to the members of Kumbhar community. The industry requires supply of good earth and abundant water for its production.

The industry is mainly located at Parali, Ambejogai, Ghat-nandur. Kada, Nalwandi. Patoda, Ashti and Patansawangi. It is seasonal in character and the artisans take to agriculture in the rainy season.

The materials required are suitable red earth, half burnt charcoal, coal dust, waste, horse-dung, etc. Except half-burnt charcoal, the rest of the material is locally obtained. A cart-load of coal costs about Rs. 5.

The tools and equipments of a Kumbhar (who is also a potter) are wooden moulds of different sizes for bricks, shovey (phawada), thapi, ghameli, pick-axe (kudali) and potter's wheel. The potter's wheel costs about Rs. 50 to Rs. 75. Bricks, earthen pots and vessels are baked in specially made kilns.

In the preparation of bricks, clay, is seived at first and then mixed with ash. The mud is trampled, pounded and made into balls which would fill up the wooden moulds prepared for laying the bricks to give them the desired shape. These bricks are dried and then baked in the kiln. Generally baking takes about a fort-night. On an average 4,000 bricks are baked in a kiln built on an area of 9.290 m²(100 square feet). The manufacture of bricks is undertaken from November to May as open air operations are not possible during the rainy season.

The earthen vessels made by the potters are khujas, deras, ghagars and budakatis, round pots, saucers and jugs. In the preparation of earthenware, clay is mixed with horse-dung and cow-dung and the mixture is properly kneaded. It is then kept on the centre of the potter's wheel and the desired shape is given. Pots are also baked like bricks after they are dried. Generally the artisans make earthenwares during monsoon when they can-not take to brick making due to rains. Brick making by an artisan requires an initial outlay of between Rs. 100 and Rs. 1,300 whereas pottery requires about Rs. 150.

Some artisans specialise in making clay toys, decorative articles and idols which fetch a good price in the local market.

Generally the members of the family help the artisan in the various stages of work. A labourer, when hired, receives between Re. 1 and Rs. 2 as daily wages.

A number of co-operative societies have been formed in different tabsils, and Government have extended financial assistance to them. There were 10 societies of brick-layers and potters in the district in 1962. One of them received a loan of Rs. 1,500 from the Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board. [Bhir District Khadi and Village Industries Report, 1962.] Six societies have become defunct.

Wool-Weaving

Wool-weaving is the hereditary occupation of Dhangars. The industry is seasonal and the artisans switch over to agriculture during rainy season.

The main centres of the industry are Raimoha, Brahmangaon and Dharur where weaving is undertaken on a large scale.

The different stages of wool-weaving, viz., rearing and shearing of sheep, carding, spinning, warping, sizing and weaving are carried out by the Dhangars. Tamarind seeds are required for weaving wool.

The tools and equipment of the artisans comprise looms using vahis (reeds) and bobbins. Pit-throw shuttle looms are commonly used but a few artisans occasionally use frame looms also. The tools are manufactured and repaired locally. The wool weaving, carding and spinning apparatus are old fashioned and a set costs about Rs. 125, approximately.

Wool and tamarind seeds constitute the chief raw materials of the industry. The operation of shearing wool is done twice in a year, once before the rainy season and then during the winter season. The processing of wool takes place after the accumulation of adequate quantity of wool. At first the wool is cleared of its gummy substance, then it is soaked in tamarind water and dried in open air and combed. It is resoaked and dried again before it is used for weaving. The wool threads are taken on the looms to prepare ghongadis after the spinning process is over.

There are co-operative societies of artisans at Brahmangaon (Ashti tahsil), Raimoha (Patoda tahsil) and Dharur (Kaij tahsil). They help the weavers in various ways. During 1959-60-there were eight co-operative societies with a membership of 187 and loom strength of 117. There is one sheep breeding centre at Ambejogai from where wool is supplied to artisans.

Of the seven societies only 3 were working in 1962 and the rest were defunct. [Bhir District Khadi and Village Industries Report, 1962.] The sheep population of the district was 63,117 in 1961. A large quantity of wool produced in the district was exported outside.

Carpentry

Carpentry occupies an important place in the village economy. The industry is pretty old and is found everywhere as it is one of the prerequisites of the constructional activity. It is an hereditary occupation of Sutars, but modern economy has brought many changes and now the occupation is not restricted to any particular community but any person having resources and aptitude takes to this profession.

The carpenter plays a significant part in the village economy as a component of the baluta system. The balutedar was paid at the time of harvest in kind for his services. This old system of baluta payments is gradually disappearing as there is a growing tendency to make the payments in cash. In villages, carpenters are engaged in preparing and repairing the agricultural implements. The skilled artisans devote their labour to furniture making.

The important centres of the industry are Parali, Bhir, Ambejogai, Georai, Patoda, Kaij, etc., where the artisans are found in large numbers.

The tools and equipment of an artisan consist of a plane (randha), chisels, cleaning mallet, screw driver, hand drilling machine, marking gauge, compass, patasi, etc. The entire set costs about Rs. 100.

The carpenter uses babhul, neem and teak wood to carry repairs and make articles. The wood is brought generally from the weekly bazars.

The carpenters make agricultural implements like ploughs, barrows, hoes and bullock carts. These have immediate local markets. The carpenters who are engaged in house building activities are hired on contract basis and sometimes on daily wages which vary according to their skill. Furniture making is generally confined to urban areas and is undertaken by skilled artisans only. They produce polished and modern furniture of latest design and decorative articles.

There are three co-operative societies of these artisans in the district. Government helps the members of the societies by providing them with financial and technical assistance. Training centres have been established at Neknur (Bhir tahsil) and Ambe-jogai, to impart training in various branches of carpentry to the artisans.

Gul-Making Industry

The area under sugarcane cultivation in the district is about 2432.43 hectares (6.006 acres). There are four gul making facto-rises in the district and all are located in Ashti tahsil.

Sugarcane is crushed in iron crushers, worked by bullocks for extracting juice. At some places power crushers are used for crushing the sugarcane. Diesel oil, power and stalks of squeezed sugarcane constitute the fuel. The cane crusher, diesel engine pans, moulds, strainers are the tools and equipment used for gul making.

Marketing and employment: Gul is mostly locally sold and is also sent to Ashti, Ambejogai, etc. The industry is seasonal and works for about three months after October when the sugar-cane crop is harvested. There were two co-operative societies of sugarcane workers.

Finance and co-operation: Maharashtra State Khadi and Village Industries Board had extended a loan of Rs. 39,037.50 and a grant of Rs. 7,000. Four more co-operative societies were proposed to be established in 1963. There was also a nira tadgul co-operative society which had been working for the last three years. Gul and other edibles are produced from nira which is abundantly available in Ashti tahsil.

Bidi-Making

Though the total area under tobacco cultivation in the district is 74.462 hectares (184 acres), there are two bidi-making factories in the district registered under the Factories Act, one at Bhir and the other at Sirur.

Bidis are made from tobacco and special types of leaves called kuda, tambri and tumari. Tobacco is obtained locally and imported from Nipani, Kolhapur, etc. Leaves are imported from Madhya Pradesh.

Tools used in bidi making are a pair of scissors to cut the leaves and a furnace and metal trays. An average bidi worker makes 800 to 1,000 bidis in a day and a good worker about 1,500 bidis per day. Bidis are heated before they are finally packed. Either coal or electric furnaces are used for the heating process.

Leaves are soaked in water for about twelve hours to make them soft. They are afterwards put in a furnace to make them adaptable for further processing. The leaves are first cut and then given the required shape of a bidi after the necessary quantity of tobacco is put into it. The bidis are assembled in bundles of 25 or 50 and put in a square sized metal tray for being slightly heated. Making of 1,000 bidis requires about 30 tolas of tobacco.

Bidis are sold locally. Besides bidis of different marks are imported from Gondia, Sinnar. etc. The two factories employ 110 persons. They are paid wages on piece rates, and a worker gets Rs. 1.50 per 1,000 bidis. The employers use their own capital for investment in the factory. Wages in the industry are very low. There is neither security of service nor are the workers provided with any facilities.

Bamboo working

The artisans engaged in bamboo working are found practically at very important place in the district. Parali, Georai, Ashti, Ghatnandur and Bhir are the important centres of bamboo working. It is followed by the Burud community as a hereditary occupation. Household requirements like mats, winnowing trays (sups) and baskets are made by them. Korvis specialise in the making of big containers (kangi) for storing grains.

Raw materials: These articles are made from bamboos which are of different qualities such as chiva, taqpat, chivati, etc. Each quality is used for making specific types of articles only. Bamboos are sold at Rs. 40 to Rs. 60 per bundle of hundred pieces.

Tools and Equipment: Chisel and cutter (koyta) are the tools used by the artisan. The whole set of tools costs about Rs. 25. The tools are purchased at Parali and Bhir.

Production: Baskets, mats, sups, grain containers and sifters (gholana) are the main articles made by the artisan. Besides, they make chairs from split bamboo strips. The products, though strong and durable, are crude and old fashioned. Two persons can produce a mat of the size of 3.084 x 1.524 metres (10' x 5') a day. The bark of bamboo from which a mat is made is also used for making baskets. The products are sold in the weekly bazars held at different places in the district. The products do not bring any handsome returns to the artisan.

Employment and Labour: The work keeps the artisan busy throughout the year. Generally every member of the family contributes to the work in some way or the other. The artisans take to agriculture during the rainy season when the work is slack.

Rope-making

Rope-making is a hereditary occupation of Mangs and a considerable number of them are found to be engaged in this industry in the district. Yelam is an important centre of the industry.

Rope is made from sisal fibre. Plantations of sisal are found in abundance in the district and hence the raw material is available in local markets.

Rope-making requires tools like cutters (khurpa), knives (koyta), and movers (chirana). The value of the whole set does not exceed Rs. 20.

Initially the leaves of sisal plant are kept submerged in water for about four days to allow them to rot and then are beaten with wooden mallets to separate the fibre from the stem. Then the fibre in bundles is twisted in thin strands. This process is repeated so as to make the rope of three to nine strands as required. Rope produced by the artisans is of different thickness. The cost of rope of 37.6 mm. (l½ inch) diameter and 20.116 metres (22 yards) in length is about Rs.10 including the wages of workers. The workers also produce brooms from sisal plain leaves.

The market is mostly local and limited to bazar days at market places.

Rope-making is a seasonal industry and the artisans work as field labourers during rainy season.

There were six co-operative societies of the artisans in 1960 The government encourages the formation of co-operative societies by granting loans and subsidies.