The Gazetteers Department

Marriage is a sacrament for the Hindus and is indissoluble. Polygamy was permitted among Hindus, but through ages, it has been practised only by very few people in the rural and aristocratic families. The general populace remained monogamous in practice. Among the Scheduled Tribes also though polygamy was permitted, monogamy was the prevailing pattern.

Traditional restrictions.—There have been traditional restrictions within all communities with regard to marriage. Members of the same caste and even sub-caste could alone be partners of the marital union. The members of the same gotra, which may be described as an enlarged family, could not marry within the same gotra. Further, early marriage was prescribed especially for girls, and was intended to safeguard their purity. Widow re-marriage was not practised). Among lower cashes arm scheduled tribes divorce was allowed and widow re-marriage was practised.

Further, marriages had to be performed only during certain months of the year and at particular hours, held auspicious. Before settling the marriage, care was taken to see that horoscopes of the bride and the bride-groom had agreed to. A number of customs and practices grew around the marriage ceremony which were almost superstitiously followed.

The choice of the marriage-partner was not considered as a personal matter. On the contrary, the head of the family used to make the choice without even the consent of the boy or the girl.

The spread of education and exposure to the modern democratic ideas brought about a change in the prevailing social customs. A number of social reformers together strove hard to bring about change in those undesired social customs. The Widow Re-marriage Act was passed in 1856. In 1929, the Prohibition of the Child Marriage Act popularly known as the Sharda Act was passed whereby the minimum age of marriage for girls and boys was fixed at 14 and 18 respectively.

The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.—However, much progress was not possible because of the non-committal policy of the British rulers. After Independence, the entire written and customary Hindu Law was modified in the form of the Hindu Code. This consisted of a series of Bills passed to remove the legal disabilities of women. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 is the most important of these regulations. The Act requires that neither party has a spouse living at the time of marriage. Thus both polygamy and polyandry permitted and practised so long have been abolished. The Act also raised the age of marriage for girls to fifteen and for boys to eighteen. Under this Act, divorce is permitted in all kinds of marriages under certain conditions. Registration under this Act is not necessary for the validity of a marriage, but in order to facilitate decisions in case of litigation, registration is recommended.

The Special Marriage Act of 1954 is essentially secular in character and legalises marital relations between spouses following different religions. The Act lays down that a man must be " over 21 years and a woman over 18 years.

Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961.—Dowry in the sense of financial inducement offered by girl's parents (or vice versa in case of the system of a bride-price) to make marriage proposals acceptable has been made an offence under the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961.

The difficulty in implementing such social legislation is formidable as social laws can be evaded in a number of ways and detection is very difficult. Customs and practices are so deeply ingrained in the life of the people that they can be changed only gradually in the absence of forceful application. Marriage is yet the most sacred and significant of obligations according to Hindus. However, change is already being felt. Agreement of the horoscopes is not the real consideration in the settlement of marriage, however, it may, at times, be used as a possible excuse for refusing a marriage proposal. The marriage ceremony has been considerably cut short to suit the present needs. Though selection of the partner is not yet purely a matter of one's own choice, consent of a boy or a girl is usually considered before final settlement. Inter-caste marriages do not cause a sensation as they did formerly. However, they are looked upon with surprise

Legislation and social reforms have, however, affected only the educated class of the Hindu society so far. The uneducated classes are still less affected by these currents. Such laws have not made an impact on the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes of the district. They are still partial to their ancient marriage customs and marital code. Though they follow Hindu rules of succession and inheritance and marriage rites, their actual practices differ considerably.

Marriage Ceremony.—Marriage, as held among the Brahamanic Hindus, usually consists of the following ceremonies: (1) Aksad: A formal invitation ceremony and procession may take place a day or two before marriage. The relatives of the bride and the bride-groom at their respective places go in a procession to the temples of Ganapati and Devi to invite the God and the Goddess and offer them coconuts, betel-leaves betel-nuts, copper coins and a pinch of aksada, i.e., rice coloured red with kumku. The priest accompanying the procession invokes the God and the Goddess to be present at the wedding to ward off all evil. Next, a married pair from each party go around visiting friends and relatives at their residences and give personal invitations. Printed invitation cards are posted earlier to persons living at distant places. (2) Simant-pujan: In the evening previous to the marriage day, the ceremony of simant-pujan or worship of the boundary takes place. It appears, originally the ceremony was performed when the boy used to cross the border of the girl's village. When the boy and the girl live in the same village, the boundary-worship is performed either in a temple or at the boy's house. The girl's relations go to the place with articles of worship and presentation, first worship Ganapati (represented by a betel-nut), Varuna (represented by a water-pot), a lamp, and the earth, and then wash the feet of the bride-groom and offer him a dress. Next, the bride's mother washes the feet of the bride-groom's mother and fills her and her female relation's laps with wheat and pieces of dry coconut kernel. The guests assembled are presented with betel-leaves and betel-nuts, Brahmans with money-gifts. (3) Vagniscaya: The ceremony of oral promise takes place at night. This is more or less a social ceremony akin to a betrothal. In this ceremony the bride-groom's parents with their relations go to the bride's house with a dress and ornaments for the bride-First, the father of the bride and bride-groom present each other with a coconut and embrace each other. Next the bride is brought and made to sit in front of her father facing the bride-groom's father, who presents her with ornaments and dress brought for her. Guests are presented with betel-leaves and betel-nuts and Brahmans with money gifts, before the partv retires. (4) Halad or turmeric rubbing ceremony: In the morning of the wedding day the girl is ceremonially rubbed with turmeric paste at her house by some suvasinis (unwidowed women), the remaining portion of which is taken to the boy's house, where he is rubbed with it similarly. (5) Deva-pratistha or god-installing: On the marriage day or on the day previous as a prelude to the vivaha or wedding ceremony, a number of proptiatory rites are performed both at the bride's and bride-groom's house. They are punyahavacana, matrkapujana, nandisraddha, grhamukha, mandapa-devata pratistha and devakastapana. They could be all included under the principal rite of Deva-pratistha or God-installing which is elaborately directed by priest. Early morning of the wedding day, the bride with her parents (and the bride-groom with his parents at his place) is bathed in hot water by some suvasinis. After changing clothes and bowing to the house Gods and elders, the bride's parents with the bride begin the ceremony, which consists of the worship of planets (represented by betel-nuts), Ganapati, Varuna, Matrkas, and avighna kalasa. The avighna kalasa is an earthen iar, daubed with white and red colours. It contains turmeric roots, betel-nuts, copper coin and sweet-meats, and its mouth is covered with an earthen lid tied to it with a piece of cotton thread passed round several times. It is prayed to ward off all evil. (6) Gauri-pujan: This is performed by the bride only. The bride dressed in her bridal dress (vadhu vastra) worships in the house Gaurihar, the marriage god which is an image of Siva and his consort Parvati, and sits offering rice-grains to the image and repeating the word Gauri till the wedding time. As may be the custom with some communities the ceremony of vagdana or vagniscaya (settling the marriage) or the ritualistic betrothal may now follow. The bride-groom's parents accompanied by his kins-folk and priest, and with articles of dress, ornaments, etc., go to the girl's house. Thereafter comes about a formal exchange of greetings between the fathers of the bride-groom and the bride, the bride-groom's father fits facing west and opposite him facing east sits the bride's father with his daughter. Then the girl's father worships Ganapati and Varuna, and repeating his gotra, pravara, the names of his forefathers for three generations says thrice to the boy's father, " I shall give my daughter in marriage to your son ", and thereupon the boy's father, following the same procedure thrice, responds, " I accept". The boy's father then presents the girl with articles of dress and ornaments. The boy's mother or some one on her behalf fills the girl's lap with auspicious articles. The party retires. (7) Varaprasthana or starting for marriage: When the time for the wedding draws near, the girl's father accompanied by his priest goes to the boy's house and laying a coconut in the boy's and his priest's hands gives them the formal invitation to his house to hold the marriage, and then returns. Before the boy and his party start for the marriage hall, a ceremony of telaphala is held in which suvasinis from the groom's side go in a procession to the bride's and present her sweet-meats, scented oil, and other auspicious articles of toilet, lap-filling and dress. Similarly, a party from the bride's house takes rukhvat or several dishes of sweet-meats to the bride-groom's house and serve them to the bride-groom and his relations. Then the bride-groom is worshipped, garlanded, and is presented with articles of dress given by the bride's father. After partaking of the rukhvat, the bride-groom, dressed in new clothes, his cheeks touched with a finger-mark of lamp-black and kumku and his brows decorated with marriage chaplets, bows to the house gods and the elders. He then rides a horse or is seated in a car and is taken in a procession to the bride's house, the females walking just behind him. (8) Vivaha: On reaching the bride's house the bridegroom is received by suvasinis who pour water on the hoofs of the horse he rode, and on dismounting, the bride's mother meets him at the entrance of the pandal, waves over his face cooked rice mixed with curds and throws it aside, and a suvasini pours a dishful of water mixed with lime and turmeric on his feet. Then the bride's father holding the bride-groom by the right hand leads him to a place near the bahule (marriage altar) where he is seated on a high stool, his feet washed by the girl's father with water poured from a pot by the girl's mother. The father then worships the bride-groom, pours on his hand madhuparka or a mixture of honey, milk, curds, sugar, ghee, etc., to drink, and presents him with gifts, clothes, etc. By the time two pats (low wooden stools) are arranged east-west with some space between them, near the marriage altar, on each stool there being piled a small heap of rice. The bride-groom takes off his head-dress and coat but keeps the marriage chaplets (mundavali) on his brow, and stands on the pat to the west, himself facing east. An antarpat (curtain) marked in the centre with a red svastika (lucky cross) is stretched north-south between the two pats and as the auspicious moment draws near, the bride led by her maternal uncle is made to stand on the pat in front of the groom on the other side of the antarpat. The bride and bride-groom are each given a garland of flowers to hold and they are told to look at the lucky cross on the curtain and think of their family gods. Aksatas are distributed among the assembled and the priests standing on either side of the curtain start chanting mangalastakas (auspicious verses) and all throw aksatas at the bridal pair at the end of each lucky verse. When the auspicious moment comes, at the sign of the priest the screen is withdrawn to the north amidst a noise of clapping and drums and pipes. The eyes of the boy and the girl meet and the bride first puts the garland in her hand around the neck of the groom and the groom around the bride's. Their eyes are touched with water from the kara (auspicious jars) by their maids standing behind them. Guests, relations and friends resume their seats, and are presented with betel-leaves, betel-nuts, flowers, scents, etc. The chanting of the benedictory verses (mangalastakas) and the throwing of reddened rice (mangalaksatas) at the bridal pair celebrate the social part of the marriage ceremony. The ritualistic part which consists of a number of essential rites now follows the procedure of each rite being directed by the priest.

The first of these is the kanya-dana (i.e. giving away of the maiden) ceremony performed by the father (or other guardian in his place); he pours out a libation of water, symbolising the giving away of the daughter (dana) to the bride groom. The bride-groom accepts the gift and then recites the kama sukta (hymn of love). Thereupon the father exhorts the bride-groom not to fail the bride in the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama, and the groom replies, three times, that he shall never fail her in these. This is followed by the rites of sutravestana and karikana bandhana in which the priest first winds cotton yarn round the bridal pair, and afterwards taking off the yarn, twists it in two separate cords which are then tied round the left wrist of the bride and the right wrist of the groom.

Next comes the vivaha-homa rite which is followed by the rites of pani-grahana, laja-homa, agni-parinayana, asmarohana and saptapadi. These rites which form the essence of the samskara of marriage are generally performed on the bahule (marriage altar).

Vivaha-homa: After the completion of the kanya-dana ceremoney the bride-groom leads the bride to the bahule (marriage altar) and proceeds with the rite of vivaha-homa or marriage sacrifice. The priest kindles a sacrificial fire. To its west is placed a flat stone and to the north-west a water-pot. The bride-groom then offers oblations in the fire, the bride participating in the offering by grasping the hand (of the groom) that makes the offering. This is followed by the panigrahana (holding the hand) rite: here the bride-groom standing and facing west takes hold of the bride's hand while she is sitting in front of him with her face to the east, and recites a Vedic mantra to say that he takes her hand in his as gods have bestowed her upon him so that he may fulfil with her his dharma of the householder. This is followed by the laja-homa rite in which the bride offers the sacrifice (homa), fried grain which is poured in her hands by her brother (or a person acting in his place) so that certain gods may be pleased to release her from their bonds. The rite of agni parinayana (i.e., walking around the sacred nuptial fire) now ensues: here the bride-groom leads the bride three times round the nuptial fire and the water-pot. At the end of each round there is another supplementary rite known as asmarohana (mounting the stone) is performed by the bride in which with the helping hand she treads on the flat stone. All the while the bride-groom recites the appropriate Vedic mantras. Saptapadi: The most important rite in the whole samskara, viz., the saptapadi (sapta—seven; pada—step) is then gone through. Seven small heaps of rice are made near the nuptial altar and a betel-nut is placed on each of them. The priest recites mantras and the bride-groom leads the bride for seven steps, in the north-eastern direction, the bride placing her right foot on the heaps in succession. When the seventh heap is crossed the marriage is complete. The couple is then taken outside the pandal and the priest (rather the groom) points out the pole star and Arundhati to the bride. With the performance of the rites of kanya-dana, Panigrahana, vivaha-homa and saptapadi, the Hindu marriage is considered to be final and irrevocable. The chief concluding ceremonies that follow are varat, i.e. the homeward return of the bride-groom with the bride in a procession, and grhapravesa, i.e. the ceremonial home-entering of the newly wed. Along with these a number of minor ceremonies are popularly followed, e.g., sunmukh ceremony: the bride, as she is seated on the lap of her mother-in law, all the ornaments made for her are put on her by the latter who then formally looks at her daughter-in-law's face: Airanidan or jhal ceremony; a jhal which is a wicker-work basket containing several gifts such as coconuts, betel-nuts, fruits, cakes, lighted lamps, etc., is presented by the bride's father to the bride-groom's mother and other close relatives. As the basket is being presented, it is held on the receiver's head, some water is poured on it, and the priest on behalf of the bride's parents repeats a verse in Sanskrt meaning, "We here give your son this good-natured daughter, well-nourished and healthy, and request you to treat her kindly". In varat or procession, the bride-groom takes the bride to his house in a carriage with music, and accompanied by males and females on both sides. On reaching, the pair worships the goddess of wealth and the maiden name of the bride is ceremonially changed. She is given a new name by which she is known afterwards in her husband's family. A ritualistic closure to the marriage ceremony is put with the rites of Devakotthapana and mandapodvasana, whereby the deities that had been invited before the ceremony began are taken leave of and the marriage booth dismantled.