THE PEOPLE

MUSLIMS

A long period of Muhammedan dominance over this region, from about the 13th century to as late as 1948 with short intervals here and there, has given birth to a peculiar culture. Social contacts have brought a degree of admixture between the Hindu and Muslim ways of life. Hence the Muslim culture in its pure form is hard to meet with. Same is the case with their religion, customs, rituals, ceremonies and beliefs. Hindu customs and rites are freely followed and local magical practices are engrafted. Many of the Hindu marriage and death rites are adopted along with the Muslim rites. Polytheism has also erupted unnoticed and numerous pirs and saints as also the Hindu deities, like Sitalamata who controls small-pox, are worshipped. Hindus on the other hand visit muslim shrines. The degree of inter-mixture, however, is not the same in all parts.

According to 1961 census, the total Muslim population of Bid district was 91,501 or 9.14 per cent of the total population. Though fairly distributed over all the tahsils of the district, they are found concentrated in the Ambejogai, Bid, Manjleganv and Gevrai tahsils. A number of them are immigrants. Muslims are divided into four groups — Sayyad, Saikh, Mughal and Pathan. Besides these, a majority of the Muslim population comprised converted Hindus who either joined Islam, from conviction in response to the teaching of missionaries or responded to the pressure applied by Muslim rulers. Among such, many have an occupational tradition which persists through their surnames like Maniyars, Attars, Patvegars, etc. Once converted, their religion permitted them freely to inter-marry but among many the old customs and caste distinctions have remained. Besides these, there are the Bohoras and the Khojas who are chiefly traders.

The Sayyads, meaning lord, claim descent from Fatima, daughter of the Prophet. As religious teachers, soldiers and adventurers, they flocked into India with the Muhammedan armies. Very few Sayyads belonging to the true foreign stock are to be seen at present. Many of them occupy a quasi-religious position as pirs or spiritual guides in wealthy families. The prefix 'Sayyad' or 'Mir' or the suffix 'Shah' among men and the suffix 'Begum' among women are intended to mark their high birth.

The Saikhs claim a pure Arab descent. Saikh is a general form of courtesy The title 'Saikh' or 'Muhammad' is placed among men and 'Begum' among women. They follow all callings and are found in all strata of life.

The Mughals have a fair complexion. They dress like Deccan Muslims and seclude their women. They are employed as cultivators. The title 'Mirza' is sometimes placed before their names and ' Beg' added to it among men. Women use the title 'Khanam' i.e., lady.

The Pathans are the speakers of Pustu language. The Boho traders are representatives of the Islamiya Shia sect. At present the Bohoras have both a Shia and a Sunni branch. Bohoras and primarily traders and flock chiefly in cities. They are only occasionally found in rural areas following agriculture. The Khojas are converts to Islam and acknowledge the leadership of Agha Khan, their spiritual leader.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Belief in one God, reciting daily prayers in His honour, giving the legal alms, observing the fast of ramzan, and making the pilgrimage to the holy places at least once in the lifetime of the worshipper are the five primary duties included in Muslim religion. Muslims on the whole are careful to observe these chief rules of their faith.

The dispute regarding the lawful successors to the Prophet gave rise to several differences in belief and practice. This gave rise to two rival sects, viz., the Shias and the Sunnis. The Shias leave out of the Koran certain passages which they say were written by Uthman and add a chapter in praise of Ali which they say was kept back by him. They do not believe in saints and follow the precepts of the twelve instead of the four Imams. Some sects of Shias count the month from the fading of the old moon and not from the shining of the new moon as the Sunnis do. The Shias pray thrice instead of five times a day and in praying hold their hands open by their sides instead of folding them below breast. The leading forms of the Muslim faith viz., the Shias and the Sunnis, irrespective of their differences firmly believe in the five primary duties included in Muslim religion.

Irrespective of their divisions, all Muslims believe in the unity of God, in His Prophet and in His books, especially the Koran. They also believe in spirits, magic, omens and in the power of an evil eye as well as in vows.

Vows to fast, to repeat a certain number of prayers, to give in charity a certain sum of money, to feed a certain number of poor or to found some religious or charitable institution are observed by the strictly religious. Vows admitting the instrumentality of any person living or dead are regarded by the religious as idolatrous.

Festivals

The Shias and the Sunnis keep different holy days. However, festivals like the muharram, the ramzan and the bakr id are common to both the sects.

Muharram: In the beginning of the year comes the month of Muharram which is held particularly by the Shias in peculiar veneration as being the month in which the Imams, Hasan and Hussain, the sons of Ali, were killed. Their deaths are the subject of public mourning during the first ten days, when fasting and self-denial are also enjoined. But among the Sunnis after the fourth day, the mourning changes to frolic and mummery. Some go about in bands richly and curiously dressed, singing with or without the accompaniment of a dhol (drum) and guitar the story Hasan and Hussain's sufferings and death. The lower classes, in fulfilment of a vow, dress their children in green like religious beggars or paint themselves as tigers or in some other grotesque guise, and beg from house to house.

Another activity in the muharram festival is the preparing of taaziahs or tabuts, bamboo and tinsed models of the shrine of the Imam at Karbala, some of them large and handsome costing a few hundred rupees. These shrines are kept in their houses for several days, and on the night of the ninth are taken round the chief streets. Poor Hindus and Muslims, men and women, in fulfilment of vows throw themselves in the roadway and roll in front of the shrine. On the tenth day, with much show and noise, the owners of the shrine forming a procession, take them to a river or lake to cast them into the water. Sweet bread and sugared water are distributed among friends in the evening.

Ramzan: Ramzan is the tenth month of the Muslim year. It is believed that it was on the night of the 27th of Ramzan that the Koran descended from Heaven. This night is termed as the night of power or 'shab-i-qadr'. Prayers on that night are sure to be complied with. Muslims observe fast throughout the month of Ramzan and avoid eating, drinking and sensual gratification from sunrise to sunset and spend time in meditation and prayer and seclusion. Businessmen and common people do not observe it in a strict sense. A representative of a group or locality observing it strictly suffices the purpose. On Friday i.e., Juma, the day of congregation, Muslims assemble in the, mosque and sing khutba prayers which consist of praises.

Id-ul-fitra or Ramzan id: This comes on the first day of Savval i.e., the month after Ramzan and marks the end of the Ramzan fast. It is observed with prayers and rejoicings and distribution of alms or food to the poor. This festival is distinguished from that of id-ul-azha (bakr id) with the difference that alms are given bounteously in place of sacrifice and hence the festival is also called id-ul-sadaq (of alms). The religious significance of bakr id is greater than that of Ramzan id, but the latter is celebrated with more pomp and show, glory and enthusiasm. On this day, Muslims go and greet their friends, and others of higher rank and receive visits from subordinates. Ramzan id or the festival of breaking the fast is observed with prayers, rejoicings and distribution of alms and food to the poor.

Id-ul-azha or bakr id is the second great feast which begins on the evening of the ninth of the month of Zil-hijja. It is observed with prayers and offerings. In the morning of tenth public prayers are held. People bathe, put on best of their clothes and go to idgah (place of prayers) to offer prayers. Goats are sacrificed

Besides the above holy days, which are common to both of them, the Shias and Sunnis keep different holy days.

The first thirteen days of the month Safar are known as the "Thirteen of heat or fever", terah teri. They are held as unlucky because the Prophet was seriously ill on these days. His condition showed signs of improvement on the thirteenth day. Sunnis keep this day in honour of the Prophet's recovery from a serious illness. The last Wednesday of the same month called akhari carsambah is observed by the Sunnis in memory of recovery of the Prophet from serious illness.

Shias consider this month as the unluckiest and also the last Wednesday as carsambah-i-suri which is passed in feasting out of the town, so that the evil may remain outside and not find its way into their homes.

Bardh wafat: The twelfth of Rabi-ul-avval on which occurred Prophet's death is celebrated as one of the three days on which the Sunnis mourn, the others being the muharram and the Sab-i-qadr or the night of power. Services are held in mosques and hair, foot-prints or other relics of the Prophet are exhibited. Night is spent in reading the Koran and other sacred books for this is the day of the union of a Saint with the supreme spirit. There are illuminations and music. The eleventh day of the month Rabi-us-sani is celebrated in honour of the saint Pir-i-dasta who is firmly believed in by the Sunnis.

On the tenth of the month Rabi-us-sani, the Sunnis celebrate the birth of Sayyad Abdul-Kadir Jilani and the eleventh as the lamp festival.

Food

Muslims in the district eat animal food such as meat, fish, eggs and fowl. However, majority of them are vegetarians either by habit or by necessity. Very few Muslims afford to have animal food daily and in some places it is not available regularly. Their daily food, therefore, is thus not much different from the Hindus of corresponding status. The common people use wheat and jowar supplemented with rice, pulses and vegetables. Among the poorer sections, coarse grains like bajri, maize are used. Milk is used for tea only. The richer sections have more elaborate preparations, including meat, milk, ghee and curds.

The routine dietary in a family consists of breakfast, lunch, tiffin and supper. Kanji or gruel of wheat or jowar bread along with chutney or pickle formed the main breakfast until very recently in almost all families especially among the poorer classes. It is now replaced by tea or coffee and the baker's bread. Lunch is always substantial. Kooked rice, jowar or wheat bread, spiced curries and vegetables, meat and butter-milk, ghee and curds comprise the menu. Tea in the afternoon and light meal in the evening are preferred.

The staple and special preparations of Muslims are roti, pulaos of many type, qorma, khicadi or rice boiled with pulse, mashed mutton, khima, kabab or roasted meat, etc. Spices used are cumin, cardamoms, cloves, cinnamon, coriander leaves, black pepper, green ginger, onions and garlic.

Dress

With the breakdown of the isolation of habitations and the new forces prompting different communities to mix together, dress patterns peculiar to different communities have given way to a uniform pattern commonly followed by different communities. Thus, pant (short or full), lehenga, shirt, bush-shirt and coat are popularly worn by men and among women a sari of five yards, a blouse and suitable undergarments are the usual dresses, However, some people are still found to dress in the orthodox Muslim style. Among such, men wear curidar pyjama, kurta, a long coat which is tight around the chest and rather full in the skirt which hangs to the knees and a cap of velvet, or of embroidered cloth. Women wear curidar pyjama, kurta (shirt) and a dupatta (scarf). They also wear, while going out, a black gown (burakha) which hides them completely. Women of poorer families use only a lehenga and a khamis. Young Muslim girls wear a ghagra, a kind of pyjama with wide legs with flounces, a khamis and a dupatta. Men wear lungis (coloured loin cloths which reach to the anklets) while going out for prayers. A number of them use it at home with a waist-coat.

Ornaments

Ornaments, both of silver and gold, are used also by Muslims. Men as a rule wear little jewellery except amulets. Members of the rich trading classes are seen to wear necklaces, wrist-lets, finger-rings, etc. Usually wearing gold on feet is not allowed but silver may be used in the form of anklets, toe-rings, etc. Many a woman wears a gold nose-ring (nath) in the left nostril. Some wear silver case containing a verse from the Koran, strung in a black thread round their neck. Besides these, bangles, necklaces and ear-rings (called jhupake or jhube) are used by women. These are made of silver, gold, pearls or precious stones.

Customs

Birth: The Muslims show an intense desire for a male heir. All possible devices including medical treatment, magic and amulets are resorted to relieve barrenness.

When conception takes place, all the cravings of the expectant mother for food must be indulged in as far as possible. The expectant mother is subjected to various restrictions which are considered necessary to guard her health as also that of the coming off-spring and also to ward off the effects of evil eye. A number of such taboos are identical with those of the Hindus or nave been borrowed from them. Special care is taken during an eclipse. A pregnant woman should not wear new clothes or ornaments and colour her eyes and hands till the seventh month. During the seventh month the satmasa rite is performed when the woman is invited to her parents' house and presented with new clothes. Several notions prevail as to the finding out the sex of the expectant child.

A general custom prevails that the first delivery should be done at the parents' house. Some peculiar customs, believed to facilitate delivery, are observed at the time of birth. When the child is bathed for the first time, the father repeats in its ear the call to prayer called azan, so that it hears its creator's name before any other words. Pieces of black thread are wound round the wrists and anklets of the child and its eye-lids are stained with lampblack. Every evening, frankincense is burnt and mustard seeds or chillis are passed over the mother and the child and thrown into fire. This is done to avoid the evil eye. In recent years, deliveries take place in maternity homes, wherever they are available.

Naming: On the sixth day, the child is named, early in the morning. The name of a forefather is generally selected. Sometimes a letter from any page of the Koran taken at random serves as the initial letter. In the evening of the same day, relatives on the husband's side bring presents like gold and silver anklets, necklaces, clothes and money to the child. The husband gives a dinner to the wife's relatives when sweet cakes are distributed.

Akika Sacrifice: On the seventh, fourteenth or twenty-first day after birth, rite of akika sacrifice is performed. The child's head is shaved and one or two goats are sacrificed, the number depending upon whether the child is a boy or a girl. Akika sacrifice is purely Muhammedan in nature and all classes keep it.

Initiation: The rite of initiation or bismillah (pronouncing the name of God) is performed when a boy or girl reaches the age of four years, four months and four days. Relatives and close acquaintances are invited and feasted. The child is seated before the tutor and made to write the words "in the name of God". This symbolises the beginning of its education. After this ceremony, the child is sent to school.

Salgirah: The birthday called salgirah is celebrated in the company of near relatives and accompanied by feast and rejoicing. The first salgirah is important.

Circumcision (Khatna): When a boy reaches the age of six or seven, circumcision (khatna or sunnat) is performed. Guests are invited and the child is dressed in new clothes. A barber is invited to make the operation and presented with gifts. The guests are feasted.

Death: Muslims wish that death may not attack them unaware or in foreign land. The chapter of the Koran, telling of death and the glorious future of the true believer, is read to the person on the point of death. Prayer for forgiveness are repeated and a few drops of honey are dropped into the mouth. After death, the eyes and mouth of the dead person are closed. The body is carefully washed, perfumed and covered in a kafan. Sometimes coloured cloth (green or dark coloured for men and red for women) is spread over and the body is laid on a janaza (bier) or in a coffin. It is then carried to the burying place, reciting on the way La-ilah-il-lallah, Muhammad ur-Rasul-ullah, which means there is no God but Allah. Muslims invariably bury their dead. The bier is carried to the mosque where the "mourners repeat the funeral prayers "Allaho Akbar", meaning "God is Great". The dead body is then lowered in the grave and kept facing westward towards Mecca with head to the north and feet to the south. Earth is slowly placed and the mourners pray for the departed soul, these last prayers being known as the khatmas. Some minor differences exist among the Shias and Sunnis regarding burial practices. Widows observe strict seclusion for four months and ten days-

Marriage and Morals

Formerly, the Muslims favoured early marriages and marriage was considered as a family affair, the marrying couple having no say in the matter. Presently, marriage is delayed and the choice of the marrying couple is also taken into consideration.

It is the parents who choose a girl who is likely to make a suitable match for their son. The fate of the couple is ascertained with the help of the signs of the zodiac and planets influencing marriage. Relatives on the groom's side visit the bride's place and accept a drink which shows that they think well of the girl, and also fix a date for betrothal.

Many observances are included in betrothal such as magani (the asking), khare pan (distribution of betel standing) and sakaran (sugar-bringing). In sugar-bringing and magani, valuable gifts are sent to the bride. But these ceremonies are customary and nor a part of the law and are observed according to the financial position of the parties.

Mehr (dower) and other terms are always fixed before the ceremony. Mehr depends upon the status of the two families. As the marriage day approaches, houses are cleaned and put in order and painted. A pendal or booth is erected in front of the houses of the bride and the groom.

Two or three days before the marriage day, earthen pots with food are arranged in the pendal to please the ancestors. Scented paste of moong, pulses, turmeric, til oil and specially prepared perfumes is rubbed on the bride and bride-groom and their hands and feet are coloured with henna (mehendi). On the evening of the marriage day, the bride-groom's female relatives come ceremoniously to the bride's with trays of sweet-meats, fruits and dresses. They are treated with sweets.

Just before the time of marriage the bride-groom robed in his wedding clothes and decked with a sehra (a flower-sheet from head to foot) ceremoniously goes to fetch his bride accompanied by his relatives.

The actual marriage ceremony is called Nikah. Among Sunnis, Nikah is performed by a Kazi who keeps the marriage register. He makes sure of the consent of both the parties to marriage, witnesses on each side sign the contract and the Kazi recites the khutba. Marriage is then said to be complete. Music is played and sweets distributed or dinner given to those present. A number of ceremonies, such as seeing the bride's face in mirror take place. The last ritual in marriage is called rukhsat when the persons on the bride-groom's side take leave of those on the bride's side.

Among the Shias the marriage is performed by vakils (mujtahid) of both the parties who obtain the consent of the bride and the bride-groom. Among Shias also prevails the practice of mutah marriage (i.e. temporary marriage) which is marriage for convenience and it is not common.

Among Muslims polygamy is permitted to the number of four wives. But due to the heavy cost of marrying and maintaining wives it is rarely practised. Marriage is prohibited between the ordinary near relations but not between first cousins. Among Muslims one's parallel cousin is a preferred mate. Sister's daughter is under the incest taboo. A man may not marry his wife's sister during his wife's lifetime unless she has been divorced.

Among Muslims, divorce is at the option of the husband but it is rarer among the gentler classes. It is being looked with opprobrium. A divorcee finds it hard to marry for the second time and a woman once divorced usually shuns marriage.

A man may divorce his wife at his own will and the Koran demands no justification from the husband for divorcing. However, in case of a divorce, a man has to pay the wife her mehr if it has not already been paid. This often acts as a restraint on the divorce. A woman can claim divorce on the ground of ill-treatment, insufficiency of maintenance and sterility on the part of the husband. When a woman claims divorce at her own desire she forfeits her mehr i.e. dower.

Muhammedan law recognises various kinds of talaqs or divorces. Of the three main forms, the two, viz., talaq-i-ahsan and talaq-i-rajai are reversible. In talaq-i-husn, which is irreversible, the husband pronounces three different sentences of divorcement in as many months. After divorce, a woman cannot mary for three months called the iddat or term during which the husband is bound to maintain her. A wife cannot be taken back until she has been married and divorced by another man.

Widow remarriage is freely practised and young widows always remarry. Generally, a man marrying for the first time does not marry a widow. However, there is no objection to a girl marrying a widower.

FOOD

Hindus

Of the different communities in the district, the Jains and the Brahmans are vegetarians. Other Hindu communitites take non-vegetarian food. Beef is scrupulously avoided by all Hindu as cow is sacred to them. Now-a-days vegetarians also can take animal food out of doors. Indoors they are still strictly vegetarians.

Christians and Muslims are non-vegetarians. Hare, fowl, deer, eggs are mainly eaten. Fish is also taken, wherever available.

Jowar, bajri, rice, wheat, maize, pulses and vegetables form the common food of the district. Rice and wheat are the staple food of the higher income groups. The lower income groups mainly live on jowar, bajri and pulses. Non-vegetarian food is relished but its high price forces the common man to follow a vegetarian diet. The daily diet of a vegetarian and a non-vegetarian in the lower income group is thus not different.

The lower class people chiefly composed of agricultural labourers and artisans take two meals a day and a breakfast (nyahari) in the morning. Lower classes are found to be not so particular about the timings of their meals and the manner of taking it. Nyahari (breakfast) is taken before leaving for work i.e., at about eight in the morning. It consists of jowar or bajri bread eaten with chutney. Now-a-days, tea has become common among this class and the morning bread is often taken with tea. The afternoon meal is usually taken at the working place or in the farms. Jowar or bajri bread forms the chief item of the meals. Rice and wheat are used only on occasion. Only on festive occasions, such as weddings, family festivals and days like dasara and holi, people of this class afford animal or fish food. Bread is eaten with kalvan, curry made of pulses or zunka made of gram flour. Chutney made of garlic, chillis, salt, turmeric powder and onions, prepared almost daily, adds taste to their plain meals. In the evening, vegetables in common use are locally available and cheap varieties like brinjal, ladies finger, gavar, ridge gourd, pumpkin, etc., and green vegetables like candan batva, math, tandulaja, etc. Their diet rarely includes curds, butter-milk or ghee. Milk taken is hardly enough for infants and tea. Their diet is unbalanced and deficient in vitamins and proteins.

The upper classes are more particular about the timings and the manner of taking their food. They sit on wooden flat stools (pat) and meal is served in dining plates of metal with bowls for curry and metal glasses for water. Some have started to prefer dining tables and chairs to wooden flat stools. Their diet includes a number of items such as rice, capatis of wheat flour (jowar bread in evening meals), curry of split pulse or green vegetables, vegetables, ghee, curds and butter-milk. Pickles of various sorts, papad, sandage and such others break the monotony of their daily diet. Non-vegetarians of these classes prepare non-vegetarian dishes more frequently (as much as they can afford).

People of upper classes, generally, take tea only in the morning and take their lunch at about 10 O'clock in the morning before going to their daily work. This is especially so in case of middle classes in urban areas who serve in offices and commercial establishments. Various eatables such as pohe, khicadi, sira, civada, ladu are prepared. The evening meal is usually light. Occasionally khicadi of rice and mung pulse is made. Vegetables commonly prepared are cabbage, potato, beans, cauliflower tomatoes, carrots, etc., depending upon income. The richer sections partake of costly non-vegetarian food (wherever they take). Ghee, butter and curds are used more freely; jams porridge and sweet dishes are prepared; fruits like bananas, sweet limes, oranges, grapes and mangoes are taken during the season

Puranpoli (wheat bread stuffed with gram dal cooked with gul) is the most favourite sweet dish prepared all over the district by the rich and the poor alike. Among poorer sections other dishes prepared are sira (made in jaggery) and khir. The well-to-do prepare srikhanda (sugar and saffron added to curds after separating them); basundi (condensed milk with sugar, cardamom and nutmeg), jilebi, etc.

Certain types of food are allowed on the days of fast. Such food mainly consists of potatoes, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts, vari, sabudana, red pumpkin, etc., and all sorts of fruits.