INDUSTRIES

COTTAGE INDUSTRIES

Itroduction.

Among the existing cottage industries in the district, weaving, carpentry, leather-working, oil seed pressing, bamboo-working, pottery, and blacksmit by are the most important industries. They employed about 23,000 persons in 1958. Besides these industries there are minor cottage industries like tanning, paper-making, brick-making, bidi-making, wool weaving, copper and brass utensils-making. etc., which employed about 1,800 persons in the same war.

Bidi making.

Bidi making is a. minor cottage industry located at Chopda. Dharangaon. Erandol. Raver and Savda.

Raw materials.

The raw materials required are tobacco of different qualities and tembhurni leaves. Tobacco is brought from Nipani and Kolhapur and tembhurni leaves are locally available.

Production.

A good worker is able to produce 1,000 bidis in a day and earns Rs. 2 to Rs. 2-4-0. No tools are required except one furnace and 6 to 10 moral trays and a pair of scissors. The cost of producing 1,000 bidis of medium quality is about Rs. 5 to Rs. 5-8-0 including cost of tembhurni leaves, tobacco, wages and other expenses. The basiness is carried either on proprietary basis or by petty karkhan-dars who employ casual labour on wage basis. It keeps the workers busy throughout the year.To a few bidi making provides a spare time job. Market for the product is the whole district. The agents of karkhandars move from centre to centre to sell their product. One such karkhandar employed about 20 workers and invested Rs. 5,000.

There was one bidi workers' co-operative society at Raver in June 1958 with a membership of 87, Rs. 1,080 as share capital and Rs. 1,914 as working capital. It supplied tobacco and tembhurni leaves to its members to the extent of Rs. 1,123 and had arranged the sale of the products. It had sold bidis worth Rs. 1,862 in 1957-58 and paid Rs. 782 as wages to its members.

Blacksmithy.

The census of 1931 shows 1,589 persons follownig blacksmithy as their principal occupation. They form part and parcel of the village populace and constitute one of the important minor industries in the urban areas. The census of 1951 enumerates 129 such small scale establishments employing about 300 persons located mainly in Bhusawal, Jalagaon, Erandol and Parola. These establishments manufacture buckets, iron boxes and other domestic utensils like tavas (flat pans), kadhais (frying pans), etc. The artisans in rural areas make iron implements such as plough, shovel, pickaxe, etc., required for agricultural operations.

Raw materials.

Iron sheets with guage varying from 10 to 30, round bars of 1/16" 6/16" and flats of 1/16" to 5/8" thickness are the materials used by these artisans in making frying pans, flat pans, buckets, etc. Old tins and scraps are used for repair work. Tools required are anvils, hammers, pakkad, blowers, files, chisels, furnace, etc., all fashioned on old model and costing about Rs. 400 for each set.

Production.

Frying pans (kadhais), flat pans (tavas), buckets, and other small utensils and agricultural implements are the main products. An artisan or a worker employed by a karkhandar is able to produce 12 buckets a day which costs him about Rs. 25 and gets on an average about Rs. 2 to Rs. 3 per day.

A blacksmith often invests from Rs. 50 to Rs. 500 in this occupation according to his means. Generally the artisans are kept busy throughout the year. It is sometime only that they face casual unemployment due to irregular supply of iron sheets. Very rarely they are faced with financial difficulties because their prospective employer purchases all the necessary accessories for them so that they carry the repair work or production work on piece rate basis.

Bamboo working.

The bamboo working industry located in Amalner, Chopda, Faizpur, Yawal and Varangaon employed about 2,329 persons in 1931. It is the hereditary occupation of the mang community. Bamboos which constitute the chief raw material of the industry are brought from the Satpuda mountains. The price for one bamboo varied from As. 4 to As. 6 and for a bundle of hundred between Rs. 20 and Rs. 40 according to quality in 1958. Tools used are chisels, cutters, etc. Main products are baskets and winnowing tans of different sizes. An artisan makes six baskets from one bamboo, his average output being 12 baskets in a day. The cost of producing six baskets including his labour is about 15 annas. The artisan supplements his income by working as a labourer in the field during rainy season when the business is slack. The products are usually sold in weekly village bazars or else artisans move from place to place to sell them.

There was one bamboo kamgars co-operative society in June 1958 with Rs, 225 as its share capital.

Bangle Making.

In old days when this business was good, glass was made locally in bhattis but now it is imported from Uttar Pradesh. In Nashirabad there is only one bhatti which prepares glass from broken bangles and other broken glass articles. No machinery is used by the artisans in the making of bangles. On an average he produces 4,000 bangles per day which costs about Rs. 10 and for which he receives payment at the rate of as. 8 to as. 12 per 1,000 bangles. The bangles are sold to petty dealers. The business is especially brisk during the marriage season when there is an unusually large demand for them. The industry keeps the artisans engaged for about a month. In the off season many of these artisans sell bangles imported from U. P. and Punjab. Handmade bangles industry which was the principal occupation in towns such as Nashirabad, Neri, Palas Khere, Palner and Paldhi, a few decade ago does not exist today in any town except Nashirabad where about 150 families are engaged in the industry. The industry which works for about a month in the year has thrived in it because the product is largely demanded on occasions such as marriages when the bride is expected to put on a green sadi and Chudes of the same colour. Amongst the Hindus, it is customary to distribute green bangles at the time of Chaitra Haldikunku.

Brass and Copper working.

The main centres of this industry are Bhusawal and Jalgaon. The Bombay Economic and Industrial Survey Committee reported that 665 persons were engaged in this industry in 1941. The industry requires copper and brass sheets as raw material which are brought from Bombay. The main products are all types of brass and topper utensils like glasses and utensils for cooking purposes, etc. An artisan employed by a karkhandar is able to produce five tapelis each weighing about 4 lbs. and earns Rs. 5 per day. The cost of producing such a tapeli was about Rs. 6-8-0 to Rs. 6-12-0 in 1958. The products find an easy market in the rural areas. The sales are brisk during the marriage season.

Brick Making.

The census of 1931 enumerates 222 persons as employed in brick and tile making. The industry is located at Bhusawal, Chalisgaon, Faizpur and falgaon where suitable earth used in brick making is available. In 1951, there were 19 small establishments of brick and tile making engaging about 134 persons. They produce bricks of different sizes, viz., 12" x 6" and 9" x 3½" x 3" or 9" x 3½" x l½", etc. It is a seasonal industry remaining idle during rainy season when the artisans take to agriculture. Suitable earth, half-burnt charcoal, coal dust and other types of burning waste, horse dung, etc., constitute the main raw materials. Half-burnt charcoal and other types of burning waste are obtained from mills and railway stations and horse-dung is obtained locally. Wooden moulds and brick kilns are the only tools used in the process.

A man with the help of an assistant is able to produce 800 bricks in a day. which require two cart loads of clay, half cart load of ashes and burnt coal.

In the process of brick making a mixture of black earth and ash is sieved to free it from stone and moisture. It is then pounded and made into balls, each large enough to make a brick. Finally from this mixture, bricks are made with the help of wooden moulds and are dried and baked in kilns. The process of baking usually lasts for a fortnight. On an average 4,000 bricks are baked in a kiln, built on an area of 100 sq. ft.

The industry employs both male and female labour. The artisans (Kumbhar) generally do not employ outside labour. The nature of the work is such, that it keeps them busy throughout the day.

There was one brick-makers' co-operative society at Edlabad, which received a Government loan of Rs. 2,000 as working capital in 1958. It had 21 members and Rs. 840 as share capital in 1958.

Lime Burning.

Along with brick-making a few Kumbhar families are engaged in lime burning on proprietary basis. Prominent centres of lime burning are Bhusawal. Chalisgaon, Chopda, Faizpur, Jalgaon, etc. The Bombay Economic and Industrial Survey Committee reported that there were 2,708 lime burners.

Raw materials required in the industry are lime stone, charcoal and cow-dung. Lime stones are locally available. Half-burnt coal is brought from railway stations. Tools used in this process are chalani. bamboo, iron baskets and iron bars.

Twenty bags of lime dust and two bags of lime stone could be produced by a family of three individuals in three days. It provides employment throughout the year. No co-operative society of these artisans was organized till the end of June 1958.

Carpentry.

The census of 1931 enumerates1,885 persons following carpentry as their main occupation. In most of the towns such as Chalisgaon. Bhusawai. Jalgaon jamner, Parola, Erandol, Dharangaon and Chopda and villages they are employed in producing as well as carrying on minor repairs to agricultural implements and furniture making house construction and repairing. Parola. Erandol, Dharangaon and Chopda are famous for making bullock carts which have as distant a market as Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

Raw materials.

Wood ofdifferent kinds and bamboos, nails, screws, paints, are, are the raw materials used in manufacturing carts. Wood and bamboos are brought from the Satpuda mountain, Madhya Pradesh, and Dhulia and other materials from Bombay.

Teak wood is generally used in construction of houses and furniture making. Babul wood and Khair wood is used in making implements. Tools commonly used are screw drivers, planes, chisels, hammers, saws, cutters, etc. A carpenter has a set of tools costing ahout Rs. 150.

Production.

About 2.500 carts are manufactured per year in the district. On an average each cart costs ahout Rs. 380 and could he produced by a carpenter jointly with his assistant in twenty-five days.

The carpenters work on daily wages when they are employed by building contractors or by karkhandars. Their wages vary upon their skill and efficiency. In rural areas most of them are engaged on a fixed baluta.

There were live carpenters' co-operative societies in June 1958. They had 148 members and Rs. 5,560 as share capital.

Handloom.

According to the census of handlooms taken by Government in 1946 there were 7,000 handlooms, engaging ahout 8,000 artisans including 2,000 dependent workers. Out of these 7,000 handlooms, 5,000 were working and about 2,000 were idle at the end of October 1958. The main centres where the industry is located are Bhalod, Chopda, Dharangaon, Erandol, Faizpur, Kasoda, Kingaon, Nashirabad, Pimprala, Varangaon and Yawal. About 4,500 hand-looms produce saris, dhotis, blouse pieces, shirting and coating and about 500 produce carpets and coarse cloth. The industry is mostly managed by Salis and Koshtis, but at places like Paldhi, Kasoda and Kingaon it is managed by Momins. Centres like Erandol, Nashirabad, Faizpur, Savda have specialised in producing cloth of a finer variety. Erandol and Nashirabad are famous for saris of Tinchadi variety which are woven with cotton yarn of 40s x 26s. The sari is eight yards in length and 47 inches in breadth. It is sold at Rs. 8 or Rs. 9 per piece. In- Savda, a sari of Gujar variety with an art silk border is produced with cotton varn of 60s x 40s in its texture. Its length is eight yards and breadth 4s incites. Its price varies between Rs. 10 and Rs. 15.

The following are different varieties of saris produced in the district:-

Faizpur is famous for blouse pieces of varying textures and designs made of cotton yarn and art silk. Each blouse piece (Khana) is 20 inches in length and 36 inches in breadth. It is sold at Rupee one or Rs. 1-8-0 per piece.

Kasoda, Paldhi and Kingaon are famous for weaving zoras. The industry is localised at Kasoda for the last 150 yeats. Formerly this industry was reported to be self-sufficient, the yarn being spun locally by Momin women from local cotton and the zoras woven by weavers and sold in the different districts. With the introduction of mill-spun yarn, yarn dealers have obtained control over the industry and weavers have lost their independence. The usual products woven by the weavers are white and coloured zoras, zuls and shawls. Yarn used is 2s and 4s.

Yarn of different counts and art silk are the main raw materials used in the industry. Yarn of different counts, viz., 80s. 40s, 32s 26s. 20s. etc., is used for making saris, khanalas, dhotis, shirting, etc., and of 2s, 4s. 6s, and 10s is used for making carpets and coarse cloth. Cotton yarn and art silk are brought from Bombay market.

Fly-shuttle looms are generally used by weavers. Only recently some weavers have installed automatic looms. Accessories like chain-automatic dobbies, iron reeds, varnish-healds, etc., required for looms are supplied to them by the Co-operative Department. Fly-shuttle looms are locally manufactured. Dobby which is used for designing the border of a sari and healds and reeds are locally available. A fly-shuttle loom which is used by a weaver is 50" to 52" in breadth. It is not sufficiently long to produce dhotis and larger sized bedsheets. Government have supplied looms having breadth of 56 to 60 inches to those artisans to weave dhotis and wider bedsheets. The cost of such a loom is about Rs. 50. Government have also supplied seven warping machines to different centres. On such a machine, a weaver is able to warp about 100 to 200 yards at a time. The cost of such a machine is Rs. 400. About 415 take-up motion looms are made available to them. Similarly. 330 iron reeds, 238 chain dobbies and 330 improved healds are provided to them.

Main handloom products are khans and saris. About 90%, of handlooms produce khans and saris, coating and shirting. About 10% produce carpets and zoras. The cost of production or five saris of 8½ yards each using 40s x 20s of cotton yarn, art silk in the border and palav is about Rs. 51.85 nP. A weaver's family of four persons is able to produce live saris in a week and gets about Rs. 1-50 nP. per day. On an average the output of zoras per loom is estimated to be 6 zoras or 6 zuls per week. Two men are required to weave these articles.

Employments.

Almost all weavers possess their own looms. Usually, materials like silk and yarn are supplied to them by co-operative societies or by merchants who take back the produce and pay them preparatory or weaving charges. The preparatory processes like winding, warping, and sizing are done by women and children Males usually work on looms. A weaver who has more than one loom employs labour in accordance to his needs and pays them wages which vary according to the type and the quality of the produce woven.

At Bhalod. a village in Yawal taluka the following wages were paid to weavers hv a co-operative society:—

Marketing.

Saris are generally sold in weekly bazars. Co-operative societies have opened sales depots and have appointed hawkers to sell the produce. The District Industrial Co-operative Association has opened nine sales depots in the whole district. Weavers who are the members of these societies sell their products through these sales depots. Zoras are sold in weekly bazars and also sent to Madhva Pradesh.

There were 24 weavers co-operative societies in June 1958. They had 4,034 members. Rs. 1,28,583 as share capital, Rs. 11,83,807 as working capital and Rs. 2,26,592 as reserve fund, and supplied yarn worth Rs. 17,46,115 to weavers and paid them Rs. 8,40,463 as wages in 1957-58.

The Jalgaon District industrial Co-operative Association, Ltd., acted as a federal agency to these societies and supplied yarn worth Rs. 2,39,635 to them. Nearly 25% of marketing of the handloom products was handled by this Association. It had supplied improved tools and equipment such as healds. reeds, wider slays, drop boxes, pedal looms and chain dlobbies.

Khadi Weaving.

In the district about 60 handlooms are used for Khadi weaving. The number of spinners on traditional and Ambar charkhas is 205 and 150. respectively. Two Ambar charkha Parishramalays are in operation where spinning on Ambar charkha is taught. Besides these artisans, about 200 persons spin cotton yarn for their own use.

Tools used in khadi weaving are traditional charkha which costs about Rs. 10 to Rs. 12. Ambar charkha, Recha and Handloom. The cost of Ambar charkha is Rs. 85 to Rs. 90, of Bardoli Dhunai Modhia (spare part of charkha) Rs. 37-8-0, of Recha Rs. 40 and of handloom Rs. 80 to Rs. 200. Repairs are done locally. The main products are cotton varn and khadi. The total production of khadi was 40,000 to 50,000 sq.. yards valued at Rs. 75,000 and of cotton yarn was about 12,000 lbs. in 1957. The cost of producing one square yard of khadi varies from Rs. 1-4-0 to Rs. 2 and of cotton varn was about 12,000 lbs. in 1957. The cost of producing

Marketing of khadi is done through khadi bhandars and agencies recognised by All India Khadi and Village Industries Commission.

Both male and female workers are employed in the industry. They do spinning in spare time. A spinner who works on traditional charkha gets on an average four to six annas per day. A person who spins on Ambar Charkha gets from annas 8 to 12 per day. A weaver who works on handlooms gets on an average Re. 1-4-0 to Re. 1-8-0 per day. This industry is managed by Social Workers' Institution registered under the Societies Regulation Act, 1860.

Hand-made Paper Making.

Erandol is the only centre where hand-made paper industry is located. The Bombay Economic and Industrial Survey Committee (1941) enumerated 15 Karkhandars engaged in producing nearly 3,000 gaddis (of 240 sheets each) of paper annually. About 100 families for whom the occupation is hereditary are now (1958) engaged in this industry. The number of artisans engaged in it is about 210. There is a pulp-making centre of the Bombay Village Industries Board, at Erandol. A few other people take to this industry in the brisk season and produce about 20 to 25 gaddis during that period.

Raw materials.

Raw materials required are waste paper and rags, and chemicals like caustic soda rosin water etc. Waste paper is supplied by Government offices or brought from outside. Rags are purchased locally at Rs 25 per maund. Chemicals arc brought from Bombay.

Tools and equipment.

The artisans have their Karkhanas containing tanks, wooden boards and frames. A beater, calendering machine and a cutting machine are installed by the Bombay Village Industries Board at Erandol. The artisans make pulp or rags and waste paper in the beater unit. The charges of the board for the use of the unit are Rs. 2 per hour and for the use of calendering machine as. 12 per hour.

Production.

They produce high grade blotting paper and utility paper. The paper is manufactured in three different sizes of 26½" x 24", 23"x22'' and 20"x18". The annual production of hand-made paper of tile co-operative societies in existence at Erandol was 78,442 lbs. in 1956-57.

Process of hand-made Paper.

The mixture of rags, waste paper, etc., is sorted out into each individual unit and non-fibrous materials, sand, stones, brash, etc., are altogerther rejected. The sorted material is reduced to small bits of about 1 to 1½ inch length so as to facilitate the subsequent chemical treatment. These bits are cleaned afterwards. Chemical treatment consists of treating the material either in cold water or in boiling water or by pressure, digesting with a solution of alkalis, soda, caustic soda or lime according to the nature of materials. Afterwards the treated material is washed in plenty of water to remove the last traces of alkalis. The cellulose fibre is then reduced to small lengths or pulp for sheet formation by a process of beating. In the old days this was done under a stamper or dhanki but now a machine called "beater" is used for this purpose. Paper sheets are then formed by mixing the pulp with plentiful of water in a vat. Then a layer of diluted pulp is taken on a screen and the excess of water is drained off. Each sheet is couched on a table and when sufficient number of sheets are piled one over the other, is pressed to squeeze out the water. Then the wet sheets are separated and dried on ropes or on walls. The sheets obtained in the above process are called water leaves. They are like blotting paper. In order to make them impervious to ink the sheets are sized with starch paste or glue mixed with alum. The paper even after sizing is not fit for writing as its surface is not smooth for the free flow of the pen. It is then rubbed with, an agate stone, conch shell or smooth flint on a burnisher or by pressing sheets inter-leaved with zinc or copper plates in two roll calenders.

Both male and female labour is employed in the operation. The latter does processing, rag cutting and sorting waste paper and the former attends to beater, paper lifting, etc. Each artisan earns from twelve annas to Rs. 2 per day. The industry slows down during the rainy season.

There is no local market for hand made paper which is dispatched to Bombay market. There were two co-operative hand made paper societies at Erandol in June 1958. They had 74 members and Rs. 4,000 as share capital. They supplied raw materials to their members and also gave them advances on product exchange basis.

Leather Working.

The census of 1931 enumerates 4,141 persons as engaged in the industry which is found at Amalner, Bhusawal, Chalisgaon, Chopda, Dharangaon, Faizpur, Jamner, Parola, Raver, Savda, Varangaon, Yawal, etc., which are all taluka centres and places of weekly bazars. At one time Amalner was well-known for its production of leather harnesses and mots, when about 1,000 sets of harnesses and 500 mots were prepared annually. Today, production does not exceed 200 harnesses and 100 mots a year (1958) due to the rapid development of motor transport and the increasing use of iron water carriers. The census of 1951 mentions 265 small scale leather working establishments engaging 397 persons. In rural areas each artisan produces or repairs foot-wears or mots and sells the produce m places where bazars are held or sells it to local agriculturists. They do not possess separate establishments. In urban areas these artisans are engaged by master-craftsmen on daily wages. Some have small establishments in which they mainly do repairs or produce new foot-wears without engaging any outside labour. An artisan employed by a master-craftman earns from Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 per day depending upon his skill and efficiency. Leather working is more or less a hereditary industry.

Raw materials.

Leather, tanned hides, nails, ring buttons, and polishing material., are the basic materials used in the industry. The hides are tanned locally, Crome leather is brought from Bombay. Tools required are the rapi or knife, the uli, airan or anvil, hasti or hammer, wooden blocks, etc.. which cost the artisan about Rs. 50. Bigger establishments keep sewing machines in addition to these tools. All these tools and equipment are manufactured locally except sewing machines winch are imported from abroad.

Production.

Chappals, shoes and mots are their main products. One good artisan is able to produce a pair of shoes in a day. An average artisan is able to produce 25 pairs of shoes in a month. The cost of a pair of shoes is Rs. 10 including charges for sole, upper leather and wages of an artisan. An artisan sells his produce directly to customers in the local market and realises about Rs. 75 to Rs. 100 per month. Artisans who are employed by master-craftsmen earn on an average about Rs. 50 per month as wages. The industry provides regular work almost throughout the year though during rainy season artisans devote more attention to repair work of stock production for the brisk season. In villages the baluta system prevails. During rainy season many of the artisans take to agriculture.

Finance.

Searcity of finance often drives the artisans into the clutches of merchant-financiers. Many are found to be in debt, the amount of debt per head varying between Rs. 100 and Rs. 250.

In June 1958 there were four leather workers' societies, one each at Chalisgaon, at Salve in Erandol taluka, at Talegaon in Chalis-gaon taluka and at Khirod in Raver taluka. These societies had 82 members, Rs. 4,592 as share capital and Rs. 17,760 as working capital in 1957-58. They supplied raw materials to their members and also to non-members and sold foot-wear produced by them.

Oil Seed Pressing.

Oil-seed crushers, locally known as telis, are found in almost all villages and towns. According to the Census of 1931 there were 1,457 artisans engaged in the industry. In 1951, there were 59 small scale establishments of oil-pressing and refining engaging 109 workers. Nashirabad in Jalgaon taluka, Sakali in Yawal taluka Chopda and Parola. Varangaon in Bhusawal taluka, Yawal, Raver, Savda, Faizpur, Chalisgaon, Jamner, Shendurni and Erandol are the main centres where the industry is located. The industry is mainly carried on by individual telis at their places of residence. Oilmen still use old types of ghanis consisting of a stone mortar (inside lined with wood) and a wooden lat (a large pestle) worked by a bullock. The cost of a country ghani including a bullock is about Rs. 700. The. last few years have seen a gradual decline in this industry. In the thirties there were as many as 50 oil ghanis at Nashirabad and 90 at Yawal and Faizpur which were once called the centres of vegetable oil industry. Today their number has dwindled to 1.5 and 10 respectively. The indigenous industry is unable to face competition from modern oil mills which are able to extract a larger, refined and pure quantity of oil. There are about 300 ghanis in the district of which 210 are registered and are brought under the organization of All India Khadi and Village Industries Commission. Mainly groundnuts and to some extent sesamum which are locally available are crushed in village ghanis. One oilman crushes about 33 maunds of groundnuts in a month. The prices of groundnuts varied between Rs. 17 and Rs. 20 per maund during the 1957-58 season. An oilman works for about 23 days in a month and produces from 60 seers of groundnuts, about 15 seers of oil and 40 seers of oil cake per day. The cost of producing both, oil and oil cake is about Rs. 34 including cost of groundnuts, etc.

On an average the artisans work for 8 to 9 hours a day which gives them Rs. 2 to 2-8-0 per day as wages. The industry is seasonal and practically closed during rainy season. Most of the products are purchased and consumed locally.

There were live oilmen's co-operative societies in 1957-58, with a total membership of 128, Rs. 4,472 as share capital, and Rs. 2,576 as reserve and other funds. These societies supplied oil seeds worth Rs. 6,479 to their members and sold oil and oil cakes to the extent of Rs. 560.

Pottery.

The industry employed about 2,852 persons as per the findings of the Bombay Economic and Industrial Survey Committee (1940). It is mainly located at Amalner, Bhusawal, Chalisgaon, Faizpur, Savda. and Yawal where ample supply of clay used for making earthen pots is available. The census of 1951 recorded 89 small potteries establishments engaging 223 persons. The equipment of a potters consists of the traditional potter's wheel, frames and buckets. A wheel costs about Rs. 30. Raw materials required are yellow and black earth, clay and fuel. Clay is mixed with horse dung and the mixture is properly kneaded before it is used for making pots. The potters bring clay from nearby tanks, ponds or nallas.

The main articles produced arc water vessels called ghagars, madkis and math or khuja, the last named earthen vessels for storing water being largely demanded during the hot season to be used as water cooler. The artisans also produce clay toys which have a market during the festival season and fairs. The products are locally sold. A potter produces enough to satisfy the demand of the village populace. In the rainy season when he is out of work, the artisan takes to agriculture The industry employs all the family members who on an average are able to produce 25 small pots a day and earn about Rs. 5. The cost comes to about Rs. 2-8-0 excluding the wages of their labour. In rural areas the baluta system prevails under which the artisans regularly supply their utensils to agriculturists on a fixed baluta. Each family on an average earns about Rs. 60 per month.

Tanning.

Tanning and leather working are allied industries carried on by the Dhor Community. Tanning is their hereditary occupation. According to the census of 1941, 422 persons were engaged in the industry. The main centres of tanning are Bhusawal, Chalisgaon, Chopda and Yawal.

Dhors or chamars purchase raw hides of buffaloes, cows, bullocks, sheep and goats from local mahars whose hereditary occupation is to collect and sell raw hides. Raw hides are also supplied to them by slaughter houses. Raw hides of superior quality are imported from Bombay. Salted goat skins are brought from Madhya Pradesh.

Raw Materials.

Other raw materials and equipment required are babul bark, hirda lime pits and lime water tanks. Tools used are chisels, aries, rapis, cutters, and wooden blocks. A set of tools costs about Rs. 100.

Process of tanning.

Hides are cleared of hair, dyed red and tanned. The hair is removed by soaking it in water for one day and rubbing lime from its inner side. After four clays the hair are scrapped off when they become loose, Hides are then dyed red by applying a mixture of sajkhar alkali and toppalhar leaves and by soaking them for four days in a mixture of cassia auriculate extract. They are tanned by rubbing their insides by a ball of cloth.

Production.

One family of tanners is able to produce 20 hides in a month. Since tanning is a long process, 20 hides arc always under process of tanning when 20 are ready. The cost of tanning 20 hides is about Rs. 750. Flesh and hair of animals are wasted because they do not have any arrangements nor machinery to turn them into by-products like, glue, brushes, etc. Market for these hides is generally local.

The industry provides employment throughout the year except during rainy season when tanners often take to agriculture to supplement their income.

Most of the tanning establishments in the district are self-owned and managed without the employment of outside labour. An artisan requires a minimum investment of Rs. 1,500 in this process which he generally borrows.

There were no co-operative societies of these artisans in 1957-58.

Wool Weaving.

Barring a few woollen mills in urban areas the whole wool industry is organised on a village level which makes it an important constituent of the village economy in the district. The processes including rearing, shearing of sheep, carding, spinning, warping, sizing and weaving are all carried out by dhangars who live in the fully tracts and in rural areas. There are about 260.000 sheep in the district and the wool output is estimated to be 183,000 lbs. Adgaon. Girad. Khedi Khurda are some of the centres of wool weaving. The Bombay Economic and industrial Survey Committee reported in 1940 that there were 225 persons engaged in wool carding and spinning and weaving in the district.

Wool, tamarind seeds and woollen yarn are the raw materials used in wool weaving. Wool is produced in the district as well as brought from Madhya Pradesh. Tools and equipment used are looms using vahis (reeds) and bobbins. Pit throw shuttle looms are commonly used in wool weaving. These tools and looms are locally manufactured and repaired. The wool weaving, carding and spinning apparatus used are very crude. The artisans require about Rs. 50 to Rs. 70 for the purchase of tools.

The main woollen product is kamblis. A wool weaver is able to weave 15 kamblis in a week and earns on an average Rs. 30 per month. The cost of a kambli of 48" x 110" size weighing about 6 lbs. comes to Rs. 11.

It is a seasonal industry. Weavers are generally out of work in the rainy season when they take to agriculture. The products do not find an easy market due to its rough quality resulting from crude processing. The Kamblis are, therefore, sold to merchants who move from place to place to purchase them. One of the greatest difficulties experienced by the artisans is scarcity of finance. They cannot purchase wool in the season when wool prices are low Secondly prices paid to them are always less than the current prices prevailing in the market.

There were three wool weavers' societies till June 1958, which supplied wool to their members on production return basis and paid them the wages of labour. They had 71 members and Rs. 2,538 as share capital.

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