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STANDARD OF LIFE
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URBAN AREAS.
For the purpose of investigation a household was adopted as the unit of sampling. In all 67 families belonging to different strata or income-groups were surveyed in the city of Jalgaon. Taking-average annual income as the basis of classification, the families in the urban sector were grouped as under:—
Group I: Families with an average annual income of Rs. 6,000 and above.
Group II: Families with an average annual income ranging from Rs. 3,000 to Rs. 6,000.
Group III: Families with an average annual income ranging from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 3,000.
Group IV: Families with an average annual income of
Rs. 1,000 or below.
GROUP I
Income.
This income group was composed of well-to-do families with an
average annual income of Rs. 6,000 and above, comprising mill owners, pleaders, owners of big hotels and lodging houses, established businessmen and employees of textile mills drawing high salaries. The family usually consisting of five units [The recognition of a person of the age of 12 or above as a full adult unit for cereal consumption, and a person below that age-limit as half a unit has now been widely accepted. In this chapter the unit of membership of a family is computed accordingly on the same basis, a person of the age of 12 or above being equal to one, and one below 12 being equal to half a unit.] (four adults and two minors) depended for its livelihood upon the head of the
family. The estimated average earnings of the families surveyed amounted to Rs. 8,742 per annum. Generally, occupation followed by the head of the family was the only source of income, though in few cases agricultural land and house-rent provided the subsidiary source of income. This group was characterised by the excess of income over expenditure.
Expenditure.
Scrutiny of expenditure of a family revealed following facts.
The total estimated expenditure of a family amounted to Rs. 6,210 per annum; of which 47 per cent was accounted for by articles of
food. Of the total expenditure, cereals and pulses absorbed nearly 13 per cent while milk and milk products accounted for about 10 per cent. The items of expenditure that constituted the major difference between this group and the rest was clothing. The standards of clothing differed widely having regard to factors like decency, fashion, custom and usage. A family spent annually Rs. 718 (or about one-twelfth of its average annual income) on clothing.
Savings and Investment.
As pointed out earlier, the family budgets of this group showed
a surplus (Rs. 2,732) which was generally invested in insurance
policies and National Savings Certificates or was held in the form of bank deposits. It was observed that a family had effected insurance to the tune of Rs. 10,000. As the income of an average family in this group was pretty large, the instances of families running into debt were rare.
Housing.
Like expenditure on food and clothing, expenditure on housing
has a significant bearing on the standard of living of a family. As compared to the other classes, this class was definitely better off in the matter of housing. Generally, the families owned houses often consisting of four rooms excluding a separate bathroom and a lavatory. Most of the houses were provided with electricity for lighting purposes. Use of electricity for cooking and other purposes was rare. Persons staying in rented premises paid around Rs. 40 by way of rent.
Household equipment.
Most of the houses were well furnished with chairs, tables, cots and almirahs. The household equipment of these families consisted of brass and copper utensils, crockery and a few earthen wares. The bedding, valued at Rs. 400, consisted of chaddars, carpets, pillows, etc. Besides, each family possessed a radio-set, books, etc. together worth Rs. 500 or more.
Literacy and Education.
Our sample revealed that about 95.9 per cent of the persons
above six years of age were literate. Among the group of literates, males outnumbered females. Few persons received college education. However, most of the members had received secondary education.
GROUP II
Income.
This group was composed of families with an average annual
income ranging between Rs. 3,000 and Rs. 6,000. It included among others, wholesalers, big retailers and shopkeepers, commission agents, professors and Government servants. The side of the family was larger than that of the families in Group I and
often consisted of six and a half units (live adults and three minors). In a family, two persons were found to he earning who looked after the maintenance of the family. Few families derived subsidiary income from agriculture. The total estimated average annual income of a family amounted to Rs. 3,454.
Expenditure.
In case of certain families, family budgets showed a small surplus while in case of others whose income was just Rs. 3,000 or so, families had to incur debts. The monthly expenditure of a family on articles of food amounted to Rs. 219 as against that of Rs. 92 on non-food items. The total estimated average annual expenditure of a family amounted nearly to Rs. 4,600. Thus the family had to apportion about 57 per cent of its expenditure for meeting its food requirements. Clothing was an important item of expenditure among the non-food items. Annually a family spent on clothing Rs. 322 or little less than one-third of its total disbursements over non-food items. Naturally expenditure on other non-food items was much less when compared to that of families in Group I. Expenditure on entertainment was almost negligible.
Savings and Investment.
Few families in this group could save part of their income. Of the 67 families surveyed, 12 families had savings aggregating Rs. 12.252 in the form of post-office savings deposits, insurance policies, etc. The survey revealed that some families had to incur debts to the tune of Rs. 1,000 (per family). Funds were borrowed for meeting the expenditure on marriage or education or for meeting the capital requirements of the business. However, it was significant to note that these loans were raised from neighbours, relatives and shop-keepers.
Literacy and Education.
Standard of literacy obtaining in this class compared favourably with that of the families in Group I. Thus 85 per cent of the persons above six years of age were literate. Among the group of literates. 30 per cent of males and 12.8 per cent of females had received secondary education. Of the literates, 23.9 per cent males and 10 per cent females received college education.
Housing.
One-third of the families surveyed had their own houses. The houses were not spacious enough to accommodate members of the families comfortably. Very few houses had closed bathrooms or independent latrines.
GROUP III
Income.
This group was composed of families with an average annual income ranging between Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 3,000 comprising in a large measure small mechanics and repairers, retail traders, petty merchants, teachers, small farmers, drivers and dealers in fruits and vegetables. The family consisted of five units including four adults and two minors. The family had to depend upon the head of the family for livelihood. In some cases, women were found to assist men in their work.
The average annual income of a family amounted to Rs. 1,494 derived mostly from the main occupation followed by the family.
Expenditure.
On account of limited income, the families found it difficult to balance their budgets. Of the total expenditure, nearly
50 per cent was accounted for by cereals and pulses while 20 per cent was absorbed by milk and milk products. Expenditure on vegetables eggs, oils, spices, etc. was almost negligible. A family was found to spend Rs. 100 on food items including Rs. 46 on cereals and pulses; Rs. 9.50 on vegetables; Rs. 10 on oils and spices; Rs. 5.70 on tea, coffee, etc. and Rs. 28.80 on others. A family annually spent Rs. 226 on clothing, Rs. 59 on medicines, Rs. 33 on travels, Rs. 23 on festivals, Rs. 7.40 on repairs, Rs. 5.40 on sundry items and Rs. 2 on fuel.
Housing and household equipment.
Nearly 25 per cent of the families surveyed had their own houses,
The value of a house could be placed at Rs. 2,500. Majority of
the people lived in one or two-room tenements. The housing conditions Were not very satisfactory. Very few houses were decent or were equipped with modern amenities.
Savings and Investment.
As a rule, families in this group found it difficult to balance
their budget. No wonder, therefore, that 40 per cent of the
families surveyed had to resort to borrowing. The average amount of debt was of the order of Rs. 515 per family. Loans were raised either for meeting routine expenditure of the family or for meeting the needs of business. The source of credit was either a hank, a co-operative society or relatives and friends. In brief, barring few exceptions, savings and investments were practically out of consideration for families in this group.
Literacy and Education.
The percentage of literacy among persons over six years of age
was less than fifty Most of the people had received bare primary
or elementary education. Among the literates, females accounted for 29.6 per cent.
GROUP IV
This class, composed of families with an average annual income of Rs. 1,000 or below, could be described as economically the most backward. It included a large number of persons living from hand to mouth, e.g., farm workers, landless tenants, petty merchants, hawkers, domestic servants, coolies, carpenters, cobblers, potters, etc.
Income.
The average size of the family was three units including two
adults and two minors. The entire family depended for its livelihood upon the earnings of the head of the family. The average annual income of a family was in the neighbourhood of Rs. 620 which was derived mostly from the main occupation. None of the families had any landed property or any source of subsidiary income. Some families were found to work on the farms of others. The root cause of their low income and consequent low standard of living was lack of continuous employment as also its instability.
Loans.
The families in this class found it extremely difficult to make
their both ends meet. In their struggle for existence, they had no
other choice than to resort to borrowing. However, it was difficult
for them to get loans or credit since they could not furnish adequate
security. Thus, relatives and friends, petty merchants and shopkeepers formed their most common source of credit.
Expenditure.
The average annual expenditure of a family was Rs. 782; of which Rs. 500 or about 63 per cent was accounted for by articles of food. Among food items, it spent nearly Rs. 420 on cereals and pulses and Rs. 80 on milk products. Expenditure on fruits and vegetables, oils and other items was insignificant. It was observed that family spent about 9 per cent of its total
annual expenditure or Rs. 83 on clothing. Thus two major items, viz., food and clothing absorbed nearly 75 per cent of its expenditure, while the balance (Rs. 196) was too small to make for a comfortable living. Poverty did not permit it to spend on items other than the bare necessaries of life.
Literacy and Education.
Standard of literacy obtaining in this class was very low. This was evidenced by the fact that 40.9 per cent of the persons above six years of age were literate. Among the literates, 80 per cent were males and 20 per cent females. Most of them had received only primary education.
Housing.
Vast majority of the families lived in rented houses. Generally
they were found to occupy one or two-room tenements. Some of them lived in huts situated on the outskirts of the city. The tenements were III-ventilated. The roofs were at a low height from the ground while the walls were built of mud or unbaked bricks. In brief, housing conditions were far from satisfactory.
Household equipment.
Due to their inadequate income, their household equipment was scanty and could hardly meet their needs. It usually consisted of one small copper drum for storing water, one or two iron-buckets, a few brass-wares and some earthen-wares. Bedding comprised one or two carpets, a rug and indigenous blankets called wakals or ghongadis. There was no furniture worth the name.
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