The Gazetteers Department

Though the district forms an important part of the traditional 'Konkan Plain', ruggedness and uneven topography form the governing theme in its physical features. Prominent on the eastern horizon, stands the main Sahyadrian scarp with a crestline of peaks and saddles. Here the major streams that drain the land of the district receive their source waters. Westwards, the main Sahyadrian range sends several transverse members of subsidiary hills, many of which with varying heights almost reach the coastline to form headlands or promontories.

From the point of view of drainage and orientation the district could be distinguished into three regions; the North, the Central and the South Kolaba.

North Kolaba.

It is drained by three main river systems: the Ulhas draining northwards to meet the Bassein creek in the Thana district, the Gadi or Panvel river and other streams draining the lands of Panvel into the Panvel or Ulva creek, and the Patalganga, Bhogawati and Amba draining the areas of Apta, Khalapur, Pen and Nagothna. The Ulhas with its main tributary streams, Poshir, Shillar and Pej flows northwards in a meandering fashion, after taking its source waters in a rift valley of great scenic beauty. In the north-eastern extremity of the district the land is hilly and highly eroded with gullies, streams and local chasms, but towards the main Ulhas stream it develops a more subdued appearance. Eastwards, nearer the Sahyadrian scarps, plateau features girdled with steep sides follow in succession to reach the Sahyadrian crestline on which the Rajmachi Fort (2,710 ft.) in the Poona district occupies a commanding position. The valley of the Pej river is broad and is separated from that of the Ulhas by the Dhak plateau and its projecting hill ranges. The Ulhas drainage in the Kolaba district is separated from that of the Panvel and Patalganga rivers by the Khandala offshoot of the main Sahyadrian range and its continuation in the slopes.

The Panvel drainage has a south-western orientation and it drains the northern parts of the Kolaba district in a fanlike pattern with the Kamrang, Kasadi and Kalundri as main streams, for a major part, the Bava-Malanggad Range with its spectacular peaks having heights varying between 2,011 ft. and 2,595 ft. forms a watershed. Other hill features are largely plateau remnants with heights of about 1,000 ft. above sea level. The western boundary of the district for a stretch of about nine miles is marked by the southern end of the Dhup Dongar with Dophora (1,328 ft.) as its main peak. In between the Dhup and the Malanggad-Chanderi Range lies a trough of laud which allows access to the West Coast Stale Highway.

The Patalganga river has its source in the Khandala portion of the Sahyadrian scarp. In its meandering north-westward reach of about 25 miles, several streams on either side drain the land that is highly eroded and marked by remnant hill features, the more prominent of them being the Prabal heights (2,318 ft.) and the Kamala fort range. On the south the Manikgarh (1,876 ft.) forms a steep range with a north-north-west and south-south-east: trend; it is in fact a projection of the hill and plateau complex that separates the Patalganga and the Balganga drainage. Below Waveshwar, the Patalganga changes its course suddenly to south-south-west to join, alter a stretch of about 20 miles, the Dharamtar creek. Hilly topography persists, but the river valley is broader and merges into the tidal flats of the Dharamtar creek. The Balganga river is a tributary stream of the Patalganga only nominally as it flows almost parallel though in a more hilly region, and joins the Patalganga only in the Dharamtar creek; the land is hilly but generally the ranges like the Shillote and Badruddin are lower in height.

The Bhogawati or the Bhogeshwari river is a minor stream, flowing almost with the same trend as the Balganga. After a meandering course of about 40 miles it ends in the Dharamtar creek.

A core of high level plateau intensely eroded and marked extensively by deep ravines and chasms, separates the Bhogeshwari drainage from that of the Amba which, on account of its wide valley floor, has gained economic importance. The Amba takes rise in a deep chasm abutting the Bor Chat, and after a right-angled bend resumes its south-east trend for about 30 miles. Below Vajroli, the river suddenly swings its course north-westwards, and developing a wide valley floor and bordered by flat-topped hill ranges on either side, the river joins the sea in the Dharamtar creek after a stretch of wide mud flats and marshy land. Sudhagad (1,981 ft.), Sarasgad (1,456 ft.) and Sagargad (1,361 ft.) are the more scenic landmarks in the topography of this area.

Central Kolaba.

The lands of Central Kolaba are drained by two main rivers: the Kundalika and the Mandad. The Kundalika emerges from a deep gorge of the Sahyadris. Flowing for about eight miles in the north-west direction, the river turns due west for about 20 miles; below Kolad it changes its direction to north-west and flows for about 30 miles to, reach the Arabian Sea. In the middle course, the river runs through steep banks and is bordered by open undulating flow plateaus. Below Kolad, it develops a much broader valley with thundered water channels and stormy bed. On either side of this broad valley floor, hill ranges of irregular trend and intense erosion mark the landscape. As the river approaches the sea, mudflats and swamps gam in scenic aspect and the headland of the Korlai Fort occupies a commanding position at the mouth. The Mandad river is comparatively a minor stream taking its source waters in the central complex of low but high eroded plateaus that separate the drainage of the Kundalika in the north and the Savitri in the south. In fact the Mandad is a local drainage development that pools the waters of these plateau features and empties them into the sea through the Rajpuri-Mhasla creek. Extensive formation of mudflats is a special feature of the Mandad drainage.

South Kolaba.

South of the Mandad valley and the Mhasla creek the land of the district becomes more hilly along the coastal strip but more open in the central interior which is drained by the four important tributaries of the Savitri; the Ghod, the Gandhar and the Kal tributaries from north and the Nageshri from south. The Savitri emerges from the Mahabaleshwar complex of the Sahyadris and after a westward course of about ten miles, flows for the next ten miles due north, and then resumes for the next 40 miles its westward course to reach the sea near Devghar. The drainage pattern of the Savitri shows rectangular features though the Nizampur-Kal drainage has a more ranlike arrangement; in this area the Sahyadrin scarp has several lower level plateau buttresses with occasional deep chasms and wider valley features. But northwards and westwards, the topography becomes more complex with heavily eroded features and higher levels, the broad valley of the Ghod river being a notable exception. In the north stands the eminence of Raygad Fort (2,829 ft.), the famous strong hold of the founder of the Maratha Empire. The high and uneven topography persists in the south-eastern extremity of the district. The upper bank of the Savitri is bordered by elevated hill ranges, and this hilly aspect continues in the west in the Nageshri river which is the main tributary of the Savitri from the south. The Bombay-Konkan-Goa. road passes through the middle of this region and a branch forks out to reach Mahabaleshwar through the Fitz Gerald Ghat.

Hills.

The chief hills of the district are the Sahyadris. From the north-eastern extremity, the district boundary follows, for a stretch, the foothill zone of the Sahyadris, and then along a prominent shoulder of the scarp and only over the southern shifts does the actual watershed form the district boundary. Steep scarps and chasms are more common in the central and southern parts of the Sahyadrian members lying in this district.

During the whole of this distance, the Sahyadrian stretch appears like a huge wall, from a distance apparently bare, but on a closer view showing signs of vegetation with deep well-wooded ravines and terraces of thick, evergreen forests. The crestline of the Sahyadris is marked by peaks of varying heights, some of them having a commanding aspect. The Sahyadrian range is crossed by several passes or Ghats, beginning from Bhimashankar Ghat in the extreme north-east of the district to the Par Ghat in the south. From almost every village from the line of hills, a foot-path runs across the Sahyadrian Range. Only two of them, the Bor Ghat and the Fitz Gerald Ghat (Ambenali Ghat), are properly developed for modern wheeled traffic. The Bor Ghat is a well-known feature allowing access to the plateau both by the Central Railway and the national highway from Bombay to Poona. The Fitz Gerald Ghat has a fine road leading from Konkan lowland to the hill station of Mahabaleshwar in the Satara district. Of the other Ghat routes, Varandha Ghat joining Mahad with Bhor is useful for wheeled traffic. The other passes are the Bhimashankar Ghat, Kolimba, Savla, Kusur and Rajmachi, all lying to the north of the Bor Ghat. South of the Bor Ghat there are no passes for a distance of about twenty miles till one-reaches the Pimpri Ghat which is about four miles north-east of Patnus. The Linga, Dev, Kumbha, Kavalva, Shevatya, Madhya and Bhor Ghats lie between the Pimpri and the Varandha Ghats. In the south-east, besides the Fitz Gerald Ghat, there are the Kamtha, Dhavale and Par Ghats.

Except for the immediate coastline, the land of the district is developed on such a hilly and irregular surface that it is difficult to group the minor hill features into ranges or hill systems. In the north the Matheran-Prabal complex is quite prominent. Besides a hill range south of Panvel, Karnala (1,560 ft.), Ratangad (1,800 ft.), Mirya Dongar (1,100 ft.), south of Pen, Sagargad (1,357 ft.), west of Alibag, are more prominent elevations in the northern portion of the district. In the southern half, Talagad (1,000 ft.), the Sukeli Range dividing drainage basins of the Amba and Kundalika and the Mangaon range separating the drainage of the Ghod river from that of the Gandhari are more prominent. The famous fort of Raygad (2,851 ft.) and Mangalgad are detached outliers of the main Sahyadris.

Rivers.

The Kolaba rivers have a common characteristic that their courses are divided into two well-marked sections above and below the limit of the tide. Their upper courses are steep and rugged with torrential waters flowing; during the monsoonal season. Deeply entrenched gullies of the Sahyadrian face feed the source waters, and steep banks and gravel patches are quite a common feature in their reaches. Fording is difficult and often dangerous during the monsoons, but during the dry season they cease to flow and form chains of pools separated by banks of gravel and ridges of rock. Below the tidal limit, the bed is muddy, broken by occasional dykes of rock, and the creek winds between banks high in places, but in others so low as to be required to be raised to prevent the overflow of the tide. Except the easy Mandad creek, the beds are in places blocked with belts of rock covered only at high tide and making the passage tedious and difficult.

Besides the minor streams that drain the western slopes of the Alibag hills, Kolaba has six distinct river systems. In the extreme north lies the Ulhas drainage; in the north-west, the Panvel creek collects waters from a radial pattern of short streams; the Patal-ganga, Bhogawati and Amba rivers drain the lands of south Karjat and Pen sub-divisions; the Kundalika or Roha river drains a narrow central belt into the Chaul creek. The Mandad drainage is very much like an amphitheatre closing round the wide estuary at the mouth of which stands the Janjira fort; and the southern region is drained by the well-developed system of the Savitri, with its tributaries the Ghod, the Gandhari, the Kal and the Nageshri.

Ulhas.

In the north, the Ulhas drains the land northwards. It flows for a distance of about fifteen miles in this district and then flows into the Thana district to join the sea in the Bassein creek. An interesting and economically important feature of the Ulhas drainage is that it receives the tail waters of Bhivapuri Hydel system and this regulated flow of the water is capable of agricultural and industrial utilisation.

Panvel

South-east of the Ulhas drainage is the drainage focussing on the Panvel creek. The Kalundri is a major stream, but others are short and very much seasonal in their flow.

Patalganga and Bhogawati.

The Patalganga is the next important river flowing east to west and receiving the tail waters of the Khopoli Hydel Works. In the north of Pen, between the mouths of the Patalganga and Amba rivers, the Bhima drains a course of about sixteen miles across the north-east of Pen. About five miles further west, after a northwest course of about twenty miles through central Pen, the Bhogeshwari, Bhogawati, or Pen river looses itself in a network of tidal creeks of which the Antora creek is more navigable and important.

Amba.

The Amba river, like other tidal rivers in the district, has two distinct aspects, above and below the limit of the tide. It rises in the Sahyadris near the Karondah pass about two miles south of Khandala, and, after a south-west course of about fifteen miles, turns sharply to the north-west, and about four miles lower meets the tidal wave two miles from Nagothna. Where it meets the tide, the Amba, as late as January, has from three to four feet of water in midstream, and, during the rains, is a rapid torrent some ten feet deep. From Nagothna, twenty-four miles from the sea, the river is at high tides navigable by boats. Below Nagothna, the river winds for about ten miles, between forest clad spurs, the channel at low tide being blocked by rocky ledges. Near Dharamtar, about fourteen miles north of Nagothna, the rocks disappear, and the ranges of hills draw back, leaving a deep muddy channel, from a half to three-quarters of a mile broad, with low swampy banks green with mangrove and other sea bushes. Through the remaining nine miles from Dharamtar to Karanja where the Amba falls into Bombay Harbour, except that it grows broader and deeper, and has on either side wider stretches of mangrove swamps, salt marsh, and reclaimed rice lands, the character of the river does not change. Between Nagothna and the sea, the Amba receives no large tributary. The only streams of any size are two from the right bank and two from the left. Of the right bank streams the Nigde river, after a short course chiefly draining the southern slopes of Mirya Dongar, joins the Amba about six miles below Nagothna. The next, about twelve miles further, is the Vasi, a salt creek whose waters run into the Pen river. The tributaries from the left are the Shahapur river, which rising on the eastern slopes of Sagargad, drains eastern Alibag, and, after a north-east course of about eight miles, falls into the Amba, five miles below Dharamtar. The other is the Revas creek, which receives the drainage of north-cast Alibag and joins the Amba at Revas pier, about a mile from its entrance into Bombay harbour.

As far as Dharamtar pier, about ten miles from its mouth, the creek is at all times navigable to boats. Above Dharamtar navigation is difficult, and, at low tides, impossible. At ordinary high tides and at spring tides boats can pass as high up as Nagothna. But the passage almost always takes even ordinary sized vessels at high tides. So much time is wasted in waiting for water enough to cross the first rocks, that when the second barrier is reached the ebb has set in and it is no longer passable. Large boats which can go to Nagothna only at spring tides are forced to stay there until the next spring tides. During the dry season, because the tide is then higher and the wind favourable, the passage is made only at night. In the fair season, there is a considerable traffic to Nagothna, chiefly the export of rice and the import of salt and fish.

There are four ferries across the Amba. Of these the farthest up is at Patansai about three miles above Nagothna where the Bombay-Konkan-Goa State Highway crosses the river. The next, about three miles below Nagothna, plies between Koleti on the right and Bendse on the left. The next is between Dharamtar and Vave on the east side of Pen about ten miles further, and the last about six miles lower is between Mankule on the west and Vasi on the east.

The chief streams that drain west to the sea from the central Alibag hills are the Avas with a north-westerly course of about six miles to Surekhar about eight miles north of Alibag; the Varsoli with a westerly course of about six miles to Varsoli, about two miles north of Alibag; and the Sakhar with a north-westerly course of about eight miles to Alibag.

Kundalika.

The Kundalika or Roha river, the main line of drainage for . Central Kolaba, rises in the Sahyadris near the Garbolot pass in the Bhor taluka, about twelve miles north-east of Kolad. After a westerly course of about twenty miles it meets the tide at Roha, and for about twenty miles more to the west and north-west, stretches a navigable tidal inlet falling into the sea at Revdanda. The upper part of its course has scenes of great beauty, especially above Kolad where a rocky ledge dams the water into a deep winding, richly wooded reach about four miles long hemmed by rocky hills. Between Kolad and Roha, the bed is rocky and the banks high with some fine mango groves, and here, though it is a large river during the rains, in the fair season it is little more than a chain of pools. At Roha a stone wharf or causeway is used at spring tides by boats. But, except in the rains the creek is dry for about twelve hours in the day, and vessels can reach the pier only for about an hour and a half at each high tide. About a mile below Roha are several ridges of rock through one of which there is only one narrow channel, where the Revdanda ferry boat, if kept back by light or head winds, has often to stop and set its passengers on shore. For five miles more the water is shallow with numerous sandbanks. Then, for the remaining fourteen miles to Revdanda, navigation is easy with water enough at all tides for vessels of larger size.

Throughout its whole length the creek of the wooded hills, as Kundalika seems to mean, is very beautiful. On both sides, behind a belt of salt marsh and rice fields, the hills rise wooded and rugged. Occasionally a bend of the creek cuts off its outlet, and leaves a stretch of water, as if an inland lake, in places over a mile broad. The mouth of the creek is specially beautiful. To the north are the rich palm groves and orchards of Chaul and the ruined Portuguese fortifications and churches of Revdanda, and, to the south, on a high headland running half across the mouth of the creek, the picturesque fort of Korlai.

During its passage across the district the Kundalika receives only two major streams. From the right, about four miles above Chaul, two streams join the creek in the village lands of Bhonang, the Ramraj with westerly course of about six, and the Bale with a southerly course of about eight miles. The other chief tributary is the Achalbag, which, after draining the hills near the Janjira border, falls into the Kundalika about ten miles below Roha. In spite of the difficulties of the passage in the five miles below Roha, during the fair season, there is a considerable export chiefly of rice and firewood, and an import of fish and salt. The river is crossed by four ferries. Of these, one between Kolad and Pui, about eight miles above Roha, and another between Roha and Ashtami ply only during the rainy season; and two, below tidal limits, ply throughout the year, one between Padam and Khargaon about two, and the other between Chavri and Shedsai about eight miles west of Roha.

After the construction of Mutholi bandhara, the waters of the Kundalika are used on a fairly large scale for growing Wainganga paddy and vegetables by the cultivators.

Mandad.

The Mandad creek, which with the Kundalika shares the drain-age of Central Kolaba, does not pass more than fifteen miles inland to the rugged uplands that bound the Kundalika valley on the south and the Ghod valley on the west. Two small streams, one with a westerly course of about six miles and the other with a south-easterly course of about five miles, join at Kondthara about five miles south-east of Ghosale fort, and stretch about five miles south-west to Mandad, where they meet the tide and are joined from the left by the Bamanghar river. The Mandad river after about eight miles of a winding course to the south, falls into the Janjira creek about ten miles from its mouth. Below Mandad, the creek winding among high well-wooded hills, has many views of great beauty. At spring tides small boats can pass as far as Malate four miles above Mandad.

Savitri.

In the south, the Savitri or Bankot creek, the chief of Kolaba rivers, gathers either directly or along its tributaries a substantial area of the district drainage. Rising in the south-east corner of the district, in the village of old Mahabaleshwar, it runs west for six miles. It then flows north-west for five miles and from about a mile below Poladpur runs north for about eight miles. It then turns sharply to the west, and, two miles further, meets the tide about two miles above the town of Mahad. From Mahad it is navigable, but rocky and winding, up to six miles west to Dasgaon. From Dasgaon it stretches about six miles south-west and west till it reaches the border of the district, and from there acting as a district boundary separating Kolaba from Ratnagiri in the south, passes about twenty miles west to the sea. The land along the banks of the Savitri is rocky and hilly as far as Poladpur. It then stretches about eight miles to Kambla and Rajwadi in a broad well-tilled valley. Near Mahad there is some rich land and high tillage, but further along near Dasgaon and for about six miles below to the Janjira border, the hills come close to the river's edge. In its course through the district the Savitri receives six large tributaries, four from the right bank, and two from the left. The right bank tributaries are the Kamthi, which, rising in the Kamthi joins the Savitri after a southerly course of four miles. About ten miles below the meeting of the Kamthi and the Savitri is the Raygad-Kal, which, rising in the hills to the north of Raygad fort, flows south-east and south for about sixteen miles between the Raygad range and the Sahyadris, and then, turning five miles to the west, falls into the Savitri about four miles above Mahad. A little below Mahad comes the Gandhari, with a straight southerly course of about twelve miles between the Raygad and Dasgaon hills. Six miles further, at Dasgaon, comes the Ghod river which, with its tributary the Nizampur-Kal, drains the east and centre of the district as far north as the Kundalika valley. At Mangaon. about ten miles north-west of Dasgaon, the Ghod, after a winding southerly course of about ten miles, and the Nizampur-Kal. after a winding south-westerly course of about eighteen miles, join and after about two miles receiving the Pen from the right, pass three miles south till they meet the tide near Ghodegaon, an old trade centre. From Ghodegaon the river passes about four miles south and two miles east and joins the Savitri a little below Dasgaon. The two left bank tributaries are the Chola, which after a northerly course of about ten miles, joins the Savitri close to Poladpur; and the Nageshri, which, with a northerly course of about fourteen miles, falls into the Savitri nearly opposite Dasgaon. Though hare rocky uplands are nowhere far off, along the hanks of all of these streams is a considerable belt of rich land yielding two crops a year, and in places covered with gardens and groves. At suitable spots where the banks are steep, the bucket and lever-lift is used to water the lands along the banks.

The Savitri is navigable at high waters as far as Dasgaon for sailing vessels. At Dasgaon there is a stone jetty at which small crafts load and discharge cargo. Vessels drawing less than nine feet can at high-water spring-tides go as far as Mahad. Up to Mahad, at all times of the tide, the river is navigable to small crafts and canoes. The sixteen miles above the Ratnagiri town of Mhapral are extremely difficult. A small boat if it fails to leave Mahad within an hour of high water will hardly get further than Dasgaon. Even below Dasgaon the river is narrow, and shoals and rocky reefs and ledges make the passage difficult and dangerous. A steam launch service operates between Bankot to Dasgaon. But sailing boats often spend three or four days in working from Mhapral to Mahad. The eighteen miles west of Mhapral can be passed at all tides by vessels of small size.

There are four ferries across the Savitri, between Chambharkhind and Kondivti about two miles above Mahad and between Poladpur and Chari used only during the south-west monsoon, between Mahad and Dadli used all the year round but only at high tides and between Dasgaon and Gothe used at all times of the year and at all tides. A fifth ferry, on the Ghod river, between Tol and Vir about half a mile above its meeting with the Savitri, is used at high tides. Floods causing damage to land and property are not uncommon in the Savitri.

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