PHYSICAL FEATURES AND NATURAL RESOURCES

WILD ANIMALS

WILD ANIMALS: The Ratnagiri district with but few forests of any size and most of these situated on the precipitous slopes of the Sahyadrian range, is from the sportsman's point of view, essentially an extremely poor district Large game such as tiger, sambhar and bear are scarce and their haunts more or less inaccessible. To obtain bison, the boundary of the district must be overstepped. Panthers are also uncommon and little help in funding them can be expected from the villagers, who as a rule are totally without experience or ambition in the matter. The tradition goes that one village from its great number of panthers was called Vaghotan. Of late the villagers have exterminated panthers by setting fire to the hill sides where among the boulders, panthers had dens. Wild boars are also scarce. Hare, jackals and foxes inhabit the steep rocky hills. Two species of deer and antelope are found. The ever growing pressure of population, the development of roads and mechanised transport, have had a disastrous effect on the already meagre wild life. Wholesale unregulated trapping by hunters has reduced the number of animals considerably. The loss of suitable scrub-jungle for nesting sites due to wanton lopping of trees has also adversely affected the wild life. The area of the Koyna Project falling in this district was the main rendezvous. But due to opening up of the tract, wild life is practically disappearing.

On the other hand, from a naturalists's point of view, the district is not without interest; several families such as the rodents and the cheiroptera are well represented, and afford a hitherto but imperfectly explored field. The following is a list of the principal animals found in the district, classified in the order given in Jerdon's Mammals of India.

ORDER-PRIMATES.

Primates. Simidae.

FAM.—SIMIDAE.—The monkeys or Simidae are represented by (1) a species of langur, probably Presbytis or Semnopithecus entellus, the hanuman or vanar and (2) the little Macaque or Bonnet monkey, makad or kelte, Macacus radiatus. The latter is readily distinguished from its various congeners by a cap of long hair resting flat on the crown. This wig, which is very frequently parted down the middle, either by accident, or perhaps through vanity, gives its possessor a very knowing and human appearance. Both species are plentiful and distributed universally throughout the district; but the langurs are perhaps more often seen as they affect the neighbourhood of large villages and towns, while as a general rule the bonnet monkeys prefer the wilder forests and more secluded haunts. Both, species are equally mischievous and when occasion offers they plunder the gardens and granaries by removing the tiles or thatch from the roofs of the houses. Occasionally, an old male langur, who, by reason of his general incompatibility of temper and tyrannical disposition has, as a strong but necessary measure, been ostracised by the unanimous voice of his tribe, and compelled to lead a solitary and morose life, vents his ill temper by frightening women and children and making himself generally obnoxious in the village. The assistance of police is sometimes sought to shoot rogue monkeys of this description; but such instances are very rare and the case must be hopelessly incurable before such aid is sought. The Katkaris a wild forest tribe, who subsist almost entirely by hunting, habitually kill and eat monkeys shooting them with bows and arrows. In order to approach within range, they are obliged to have recourse to stratagem, as the monkeys at once recognise them in their ordinary costume. The ruse usually adopted is for one of the best shots to put on a women's robe, sari, under the ample folds of which, he conceals his murderous weapons. Approaching the tree on which the monkeys are seated, the disguised shikari affects the utmost unconcern, and busies himself with the innocent occupation of picking up twigs and leaves. Thus disarming suspicion, he is enabled to get a sufficiently close shot to render success a certainty. Both the langur and the bonnet monkeys can be easily tamed, but the latter are far more lively and interesting pets than the former.

Cheiroptera.

Sub-order—CHEIROPTERA.—Cheiroptera are represented by the common flying fox or fruit bat, Vad-vagul, or dhamka, Pteropus medius, or P. edwardsii, as it is usually, but erroneously styled; one species of Vampire bat is Megaderma Lyra; and three or four other small bats. Flying foxes are exceedingly plentiful. They feed chiefly on the fruit of the various fig trees, and of the undi, Cala-phyllum imophllum, and do a considerable amount of damage. They are also accused of drinking the fresh juice of the cocoanut and in some cocoanut gardens, gins are habitually set to catch the thieves.

Order-INSECTIVORA.

Insectivora.

The common musk rat, Sorex caerulescens is common everywhere but no other representatives of this order have hitherto been observed in this district.

Order-CORNIVORA.

Cornivora.

 Lutrinae.

Fam.—LUTRINAE.— The Badger, Weasel, and Marten families, Melididoe and Mustelidoe, have no representatives in the district but the Common Indian Otter, ud, Lutra nair, is plentiful on all tidal creeks and back waters, and affords excellent sport when found in shallow water or on the mud banks of the creeks. During the heat of the day they repose under the thick cover of the mangrove trees and other bushes, whieh grow on the swamps of the tidal creeks, and start forth shortly before sunset in parties of four or five to fish in the open rivers.

Felidae.

Fam.—FELIDAE.—The tiger, vagh, Felis tigris, is scarce, and is seldom seen, away from the dense cover of the Sahyadrian range, particularly in the south. Panthers, biblya, felis pardus, of small size are found all over the district in hill and temple forests, preying on goats, dogs, small cattle and occasionally entering houses. Hunting leopards, Chittas, Felis Jubata, are, it is believed, found occasionally in the Sahyadrian range; but they are rare visitants. The only other members of the cat family are the leopard cat, feis bengalensis, exceedingly rare and confined to the Sahyadrian range, and the common jungle cat, Baul, felis chaus, found everywhere, and is a very regular nocturnal visitor to every district camp.

Viverridae.

Fam.—VIVERRIDAE.—The Striped Hyaena, Taras, Hyaena striata, is common and the steep rocky hills of the district are peculiarly favourable to its existence. A species of Civet cat, Kasturi, or Jovadi manjar, Viverra malaccensis, is found in the district. The common tree or toddy cat, Manuri or Kandechaur, paradoxurus musanga, is distributed generally. It is a great pest to poultry-keepers, destroying out of apparently mere wantonness every fowl, it can lay hands on, without any regard to its actual requirements or appetite. It also robs fruit trees and has a decided liking for palm toddy. The mungus, Herpestes grisous, is also exceedingly common everywhere.

Canidae.

Fam.—CANIDAE.—The jackal Kolha, canis aureus, and the Indian fox, Khokad, Vulpes bengalensis, are both extremely common. Wolves are sparingly known but packs of wild dogs, Kolsinda, Cuon rutilans, have been seen in the Sahyadrian range, and are well known to the hill peasantry.

Order-RODENTIA.

Rodentia.

Omitting the Cetacea, which order is probably represented by the Plumbeous Dolphin, Delphinus Plumbeus and the Indian Fin Whale, Baloenoptera Indica, the Rodents, according to Jerdon's Classification come next. Of these the chief representatives are (1) The Bombay Red Squirrel, Sciurus elpinstonei, is only found in thick forests in the Sahyadrian range; (2) the Common Squirrel, Kharuti, Sciurus palmarum, is universally distributed; (8) the Porcupine, Salu; Hystrix leucura, is rare; and (4) the Common Hare, sasa, i.e., magro-collos and several species of rats and mice, including the giant of the family, the Bandicoot, ghus, Mus-bandicota. Hares are not nearly so plentiful in this district as in the Deccan, and owing to the ruggedness of the country, coursing is a sport which affords little amusement and some danger.

Order-UNGULATA.

 Suidae.

The sole representative of this order is the Indian Wild Boar, dukar, Sus indicus, found both in the Sahyadri hills and near the coast, in brushwood overhanging the tidal creeks. During the hot months and at low tide, the pigs in the vicinity of the creeks habitually resort to the mangrove swamps, Khajans, where they wallow for hours together. They cause considerable damage to the standing crop.

Tribe-RUMINANTIA.

Ruminantia.

The Ruminantia found within the limits of the district, are (1) the sambar, Rusa Aristotelis, is restricted to the Sahyadrian range and difficult to obtain; (2) the spotted deer, chital, Axis maculatus, is also restricted to the dense Sahyadrian forests and is seldom seen; (3) the common rib-faced or barking deer or Muntjac, bhekra or jangli bakri, Cervulus aureus, as distinguished from the four-homed antelope, Tetraceros quadricornis, also called bhekra, are sparingly distributed throughput the district, in the thicker hillside forests, from the coast to the summits of the Sahyadrian range; (4) the mouse deer, pisora, Memimna indica, is restricted to the Sahyadrian forests but is seldom seen. When put up, it looks more like a hare than a deer from its elevated hind quarters and diminutive size; and (5) the four-horned antelope, bhekra, Tetraceros quadricornis, is generally and plentifully distributed and is found alike in thick and thin forests, rocky and almost barren hills and dense groves, wherever the low bushes on which it feeds, give sufficient herbage. Bison, gava, Gavaeus gaurus, may possibly on rare occasions stray within the limits of the district, but it cannot be properly included in the list. One or two herds range along the Sahyadris; but they keep to the more level portions of the crest, ghat-matha; and have not been known of late years to cross the watershed. The nilgai, Portax pictus, is practically unknown within Ratnagiri limits. Of the deer mentioned above only two species, the barking deer, Cervulus aureus, and the four-horned antelope, Tetraceros quadricornis, are found in sufficiently accessible places to repay the trouble of shooting them.

BIRDS.

BIRDS.—In view of the hilly character of the country side of Ratnagiri district, the-district should have been rich in avifauna, to which facts do not bear truth. With the exception of a few common species of birds, the game birds are strangely rare—well nigh extinct, and from the species point of view this district is extremely poor particularly on acount of the absence of partridges, sandgrouse, bustards, quails, cranes, etc. Even as regards ducks and snipes, they are not as plentiful as they were once, and the tidal creeks and river banks which should ordinarily have been expected to swarm with them are very rarely found to have these birds in large numbers.

The waders, swimmers, divers and aquatic and oceanic species are naturally restricted to the coast and broad tidal estuaries. On the other hand birds of prey with the exception of the fishing eagles, the pigeons, doves, etc., range throughout the district. The prevailing species of birds are such as might be expected in a humid, well wooded country rather than in bare open plains. The following examples may be cited.

Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula Krameri) is comparatively a scarce bird. Similarly, the Spotted Dove replaces almost entirely the Little Brown Dove. The Jungle Myna replaces the Common Myna, as also the Red-whiskered Bulbul takes the place of the Madras Red-vented Bulbul. Species such as the Green Barbct, the Southern Yellow Tit, the white-winged Ground Thrush, the Green Bulbul (Chloropsis) and other forest-loving birds are seen throughout the district. On the other hand birds which prefer a dry open plain such as Sand Grouse, Courier Plover, Bustard and others are hardly ever seen.

Order-RAPTORES.

Raptores.

This order is represented by four species of vultures, three of falsons, one of hawk, five of eagles, one of buzzard, two of harriers, two of kites and several species of owls.

Earn.—VULTURIDAE—The Indian King of Black Vulture (Torgos) is rarely seen and is not known to breed within the limits of the district.

Vulturidae.

The Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) is plentiful in the fishing villages on the coast and is seen feeding in company with the white-backed vulture. It has breeding places in rocky cliffs.

The White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) is by far the most common vulture in the district. It has nests generally of stick platforms in lofty trees and thick groves. A lone white egg is generally laid. Two or three nests are sometimes found at a single place, and it appears that they prefer to stay in small colonies.

The White Scavenger Vulture (Neophron perenopterus) known locally as " PANDHRIGHAR " is not seen very commonly. It seems to breed and prefer the company of the variety mentioned above

Falconinae.

Fam.—FAKONIDAE—Sub-Fam.—Falconinae.—The Perigrine Falcon or Bhyri (Falco peregrinus Jrinus) is seen occasionally along the coast and on rocky inlands off the main coast, but is extremely rare.

The Red-headed Merlin or Turumti, Chiquera Falco is also rare but is said to be a permanent resident. It is reported to be comparatively common in the adjoining Satara and Sangli districts where in January and February, it breeds on mango and tamarind trees, laying from three to four eggs. While breeding, these falcons are extremely noisy and vicious, attacking all intruders such as crows and kites with the greatest audacity.

The Kestrel or Falco Tinnunculus makes its appearance in small parties in October at the beginning of the cold weather and leaves about the middle of March. It is not so plentiful in this district as in the Deccan plain. Major Lloyd in his list gives in addition to the above the Shahin (Falco perigrinator) and the Laggar (Falco jugger) which are reported to be probable visitors but enquiries have not revealed any trace of these varieties.

Accipitrine.

Sub-Fam.—ACCTPITRINE.—Shikra or Astur badius is commonly dis- tributed and is a permanent resident, breeding in summer, laying generally four ink-spotted greenish white eggs.

Aquilinae.

Sub-Fam.—AQUILINAE.—Booted Hawk or Eagle (Hieraetus-pen- natus) is extremely rare.

Shendri Ghar (Crested Hawk-Eagle, Hieraetus cirrhatus) is by far the commonest eagle in the district, distributed all over. It is very destructive to poultry, quail, green pigeons, etc. and also occasionally attacks small snakes. The mango tree is often preferred by it and though other kites may have their nests nearby, particular dump of trees chosen by the pair, is treated by them as their exclu-. sive property and no trespassers are allowed to build anywhere near. A single egg is generally laid.

The (Spilornis Cheela) Gested Serpent Eagle is found in forested country usually in pairs.

Mhorangi Ghar is a permanent resident and breeds in the hot weather. Snakes, lizards and frogs are its chief food.

The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is common on the larger tidal creeks and estuaries where fish are plentiful. It is a winter visitor and is often seen in company with the next species.

The White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaetus lencogaster) is found on the sea coast and a few miles up the larger tidal rivers. It is a permanent resident and breeds regularly in winter, generally sticking to the same nests which are large stick platforms. They lay two eggs measuring about 3" X 2". They generally keep to their nests at all times while breeding or not breeding, and return to it after their trips in search of food. It is very common to find remains of their meals —bones, skins of snakes and poultry, etc. under their nests. Any lofty tree with a strong horizontal branch suits for their nests. Generally, they hunt in pairs. Both, when perched and on the wings, utter a loud clear far-reaching resonant cry.

Buteoninae.

Sub-Fam.—BUTEONINAE.—The White-eyed Buzzard (Butashur teesa) is reported to be spread both in the southern and northern side of the district, but it is extremely rare.

The Pale Harrier (Circus macrurus) is abundant everywhere in the cold season. It comes in October just when the Malabar Crested Lark (Galerida malabarica) and the little Black-bellied Finch Lark (Eremopteryx grisea) are rearing their young broods on the bare, rocky plateaus thinly covered with coarse grass. Numbers of young Nestling Larks, partially exposed to their keen-sighted enemies, are destroyed by the harriers. By day, they hunt either singly or in pairs beating silently over plain and hillside for young birds, lizards, mice and locusts. By night they gather in large parties, roosting on the ground, often under cover of long grass. Montague's Harrier, (Circus Pygargus) probably visits the district in the cold season, but no reliable information is available.

The Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) is also occasionally found in the cold weather, but is not common.

Milvinae.

Sub-Fam.—MILVINAE.—Tambadi Mhorangi or the Brahmani Kite (Haliastur indus) is more common on the coast, but is sometimes seen inland. It prefers crabs for food. These birds build their nests rather high on cocoanut palms or mangrove trees. Usually, two eggs are laid which are white in colour and minutely speckled with reddish brown. They are inclined to desert their nests on any provocation and do not make an active defence of the young ones or eggs, but fly round overhead in short circles.

The Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans, govinda) is too well-known and is usually found in every village and treated with contempt as it kills chickens. The breeding season is January to March. Choosing any high tree, it makes the usual stick platform lined with leaves. The normal number of eggs is two, which vary in colour, and also somewhat in shape and size. The commonest type is a dingy-white brown with a reddish tinge at the larger end. These birds vigorously defend their eggs dashing an intruder who climbs the tree, one on either side of him flying opposite ways, and striking at him as they rush past with wings and claws. Pariah Kite is called ghar or Kombadi ghar by the Konkanis.

Strigidae.

Fam.—STRIGIDAE.—The Indian Screech Owl (Tyto alba) is entirely nocturnal in its habits, hiding by day in cavities of decayed trees and buildings. It is found locally throughout the district although not very commonly. It breeds in December and January.

The Brown Wood Owl (Strix indrance) is a very rare species.

The Motded Wood Owl (Strix ocellata) is usually found in the northern part and prefers mango clumps on the outside of the villages, rather away from the coast. They nest in January and February in cavities of trees, laying two very spherical creamy-white eggs. The young can be tamed and made docile. The birds devour lizards, grass-hoppers and cockroaches, with great gusto. Dogs are their greatest aversion. They have a rare knack, readily to learn to distinguish friends from strangers and show evident signs of alarm on seeing a strange face. They are entirely nocturnal.

The Rock Horned Owl (Bubox bengalensis) a rather common type found amongst rocky cliffs overhanging tidal creeks. Though it perches on trees as well as on rocks, it flies back to even distant rocks, when disturbed from a tree. It comes out directly when the sun is down. It has a deep dissyllabic hoot, which may be syllabled hoo! hoo! It feeds on rats, lizards and crabs. It breeds in January and February scooping out a hole in the earth under cover of a projecting boulder and laying three or four round, white eggs.

The Brown Fish Owl (Bubo zeylonensis) is common throughout the district, affecting thick forests and lofty trees always near water. Fish and crabs form its chief food. These birds thrive well in con-finement, and eat raw or cooked meat. They drink water freely and greatly enjoy a bath. Popularly known as Human, they breed from January to March in holes of trees laying two eggs. The cry of this owl is a long deep aspirated sign, excessively human in its intonation. To those who are by nature superstitious, this repulsive laugh, when heard close overhead in the dead of night often forebodes impending danger.

Bruce's Scops Owl, Otus brucil, is a very rare species.

The Malabar Scops Owl (Otus bakkamoena) a curious little horned owl, is found throughout the district in thick groves and cocoanut gardens. It is popularly called Kuta in reference to its low soft call. Strictly nocturnal, it hides by day In cavities of decayed trees. It is usually seen in pairs. They nest in January in cavities of trees laying three to four glossy white eggs. Unlike other allied species, they are extremely inoffensive and if handled make no attempt to retaliate.

The Malabar Barred Owlet (Glaucidium malabaricum) is plentifully distributed, especially in the northern part. It is a lively little bird diurnal in its habits, flying from tree to tree and uttering its clear, tremulous, whistling call at intervals throughout the day. It rarely hides itself except during the breeding season, March and April, when it lays three or four round white eggs. Extremely vicious when caught or wounded, it defends itself vigorously with its sharp claws.

Order-INSESSORES.

Hirundinidae.

Fam.—HIRUNDINIDAE.—Swallows, Martins, and Swifts are plentiful throughout the district and particularly on the sea coast. All these species are indiscriminately termed Pakoli by the villagers.

Sub-Fam.—HIRUNDININAE—The Common Swallow.—It is rarely found to have settled in this district. It appears in the cold weather in numbers and leaves about the middle of March.

The Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirundo filifera (Steph. Jerd. 84) is a permanent resident, though sparingly distributed. These birds breed in rocks overhanging streams, under bridges and culverts making a beautiful cup nest lined with feathers laying two or three delicate white eggs spotted with red.

The Redrumped or Mosque Swallow, Hinrundo erythropygia, (Sykes. Jerd. 85) is the common swallow of the district, found plentifully in all parts both inland and on the coast. They make retort-shaped mud nests under the eaves of buildings, and especially in the interiors of ruined fort buildings. The nests are usually isolated.

The Dusky Crag Martin, Ptyonoprogne concolor, (Skyes. Jerd. 90) is found sparingly all down the coast. These birds breed in the hot weather making a beautiful cup nest lined with feathers under the ledges of rocks overhanging the sea shore, laying three or four white eggs.

Cypselinae.

Sub-Family.—CYPSELINAE (Gray. Jerd. 100) is plentifully distributed, especially common about the rocky lands. These birds are gregarious in habits and a dozen or more nests may be found together in clusters. The nests, though outwardly untidy and unfinished are strongly made of grass and feathers, stuck together with gluten which gives the interior a very sticky appearance. The entrance is at the top through a narrow crevice.

The Palm Swift, Cypselus batassiensis (E. J. Gray, Jerd. 102), is an inhabitant of this district. Although it is usually associated with the Palmera tree which is unknown in this district, they are found in cocoanut gardens in the district.

The Edible Nest Swiftlet or Salangane, Collocalia unicolor (Jerd. 103), is, as Jerdon has stated, found on some rocks rising out of the sea, about twelve miles off the port of Vengurla. The nests are made of inspissated saliva, in the form of white gelatine. The rock on which the nests are found is about four miles long. It is said that the right of collecting the nests was being farmed every year, in the past.

The Indian Crested Swift, Dendrochelidon coronata (Tick Jerd. 104), is found throughout the district and appears to be equally common near the coast as near the Sahyadris. It breeds from April to June on bare dead branches of forests, laying a single elongate white egg. The nest is a very shallow half saucer composed of thin flakes of bark. The bird when sitting across the nest completely hides it as the nest is very short.

Caprimulgidae.

Fam.—CAPRIMULGIDAE.—The Jungle Night Jar, Caprimulgus indicus (Lath. Jerd. 107) is a very rare species which is not found these days. The Common Indian Night Jar is found in fair number. It is popularly known as Kapur.

Franklin's Night Jar, Caprimulgus monticolus (Frankl. Jerd. 114), a larger species, is perhaps equally common in the northern part.

Merodipae.

Fam.—MERODIPAE.—The Common Indian Bee-eater, Merops viridis (Lin. Jerd. 117), known as Pathal Kirli is plentifully distributed throughout the district. Usually seen alone or in small parties and perching on a branch or stalk of coarse grass, it makes frequent short sallies after its insect prey, regularly returning almost to the sama perch, time after time, for hours together. The bee-eaters of one locality gather together in the evening and after disporting themselves in one large flock, retire to roost night after night in the same trees.

Coraciadae.

Fam.—CORACIADAE.—The Indian Roller, tas or dhau, Coracias indica (Lin. Jerd. 123), is the only species of roller found. Though nowhere very plentiful, and not often seen near the coast, a few birds are always found about well-wooded inland villages. It is a winter visitant to this tract, though some are inclined to think it to be a permanent resident. The roller breeds in holes of cocoanut, mango and other trees laying as a rule four very glossy broad oval eggs. The nests have no lining and are simply covered with powdered bark.

Halcyonidae.

Fam.—HALCYONIDAE.—The Brown-headed Kingfisher, Pelargopsis gurial (Parson. Jerd. 127), commonly called the Storkbilled Kingfisher, is rather rare.

The Whitebreasted Kingfisher Halcyon smyrneusis (Lin. Jerd. 129), though widely distributed, is comparatively scarce. It is more often found near small woodland streams than creeks and unlike other kingfishers is often seen perched in dry brushwood at a considerable distance from water.

The whitecollared Kingfisher, Halcyon chloris (Bodd. Jerd. 132), is found in some mangrove swamps on the banks of small tidal creeks. It never pounces, but catches small crabs and mollusces out of the mud, preferring this to deep-water fishing. It has a peculiar shrill call, uttered both when perched and on the wing.

The Common Indian Kingfisher, Alcedo bengalensis (Gmel. Jerd. 134), is one of the commonest birds in the district. It swarms on all the tidal creeks and mangrove swamps, and every little pond or large well is tenanted by a pair or more of these industrious little fisher birds.

The Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis (Lin. Jerd. 136), is also common, but not nearly so plentiful as the earlier one. It is seen in the fresh inland rivers rather than in tidal waters.

Buceratidae.

Fam — BUCEROTIDAE.—The great Hornbill, Dichoros cavatus (Shaw. Jerd. 140), is an eccentric bird. It imprisons the brooding female in a hole of a tree, with mud plastered so as to leave a small opening; it decorates its plumage, with yellow oil paint. It keeps to the slopes of the Sahyadris and the well wooded low lands. Although they are found wandering far and wide in search of ripe berries and fruits which is their staple food, they will kill snakes when they see them. They are usually found in groups of four to six and rarely single. It is popularly called " GARUD PAKSHI".

The Malabar Pied Hornbill, Hydrocissa coronata (Bodd. jerd. 141), is usually seen in the southern parts of the district and its habits are similar to that of the earlier one.

Tribe-SCANSORES.

Psittacide.

Fam.—PSITTACIDE.—The Roseringed Paroquet, Paloeornis torquatus (Bodd. Jerd. 148), is widely distributed but rarely found. It nests in cavities of trees during the hot months, laying four or more whitc glossless eggs. It is popularly called as Kir or Popat. The caged parrots are also called Raghu.

The Rose-headed Paroquet, Paloeornis purbureus (Mull. Jerd. 149), is the common species of the district and is abundantly found everywhere. It destroys crops.

The Blue-winged Paroquet, Paloeornis Columboides (Vig. Jerd. 151), a lovely species with dove grey head and blue wings, is found only in the Sahyadri forests.

The Indian Loriquet or Lovebird, Loriculus vernalis (Sparrm Jerd. 153), popularly called Katra, is plentiful in almost all localities.

Picidae.

Fam.-PICIDAE.—The Yellow-fronted Woodpecker, Picus mara thensis (Lath. Jerd. 160), is not very common, but is occasionally seen in thin forests throughout the district.

The Golden-backed Woodpecker, Chrysocolaptes sultaneus (Hodgs. Jerd. 166), a beautiful bird, is found in the inland tracts at the base and on the slopes of the Sahyadris.

The Blackbacked Woodpecker, Chrysocolaptes festivus (Bodd. Jerd. 167), the most handsome of all the group, is commonly found in the cocoanut gardens near coast.

The Madras Rufous Woodpecker, Misropternus gularis (Jerd. 179), is found all over the district in thick groves and forests but not near the coast. Its head and tail are found to be smeared with resin Malherbe's Goldenbacked Woodpecker, Brachypternus puncti-collis (Malh. Jerd. 181), is the common Woodpecker of the district distributed all over and it frequents the cocoanut gardens on the coast as well as the inland forest tracts. It breeds in the hot months of April and May.

Magalaemidae.

Fam.—MAGALAEMIDAE.—The Malabar Green Barbet, Megalaema inornata, (Wald. Jerd. 193), is plentifully found during the rainy season on the Sahyadri slopes. It is popularly called as Koturga.

The Small Green Barbet, Megalaema virdis, (Bodd. Jerd. 194), is plentiful in Sahyadri forests throughout the district.

Cuculidae.

Fam.—CUCULIDAE.—The Indian Cuckoo, Cuculus micropternus (Gould. Jerd, 203), is a rare species in this district and is found near the mangroves only. It has a peculiar call which can be described as a double repetition of the word cuckoo.

The Indian Koel, Eudynamys honorata (Lin. Jerd. 214), is found everywhere, both on the coast and inland. It breeds in May and |uly and it lays its eggs in the nests of crows. There is a popular belief that the song or whistle of the bird heralds the coming of the monsoons. It is also believed that as it seldom alights on the ground and is thus deprived of drinking water, it has to depend on rain water.

Centropodinae.

Sub-Fam.—CENTROPODINAE.—The Common Coucal, Centrococcyx rufipennis (III-Jerd. 217), popularly called Kukudkumba is found everywhere on the outskirts of the villages in thick bushes. One can hear its deep mournful note at all hours of the day.

Tribe-TENUIROSTRES.

Nectarinidae.

Fam.—NECTARINIDAE.—The Violeteared Red Honevsucker, Aetho- pyga vigorsii (Sykes, Jerd. 226), is found on the western slopes of the Sahyadri ranges, and sparingly near the coast in cocoanui gardens.

The Amethyst Honeysucker, Cinnyris Zeylonica (Lin. Jerd. 232), is more widely distributed and plentiful. The males keep their exquisite plumage throughout the year. Their nests are beautiful, hung from the slenderest twigs, and rocked to and fro by every breath of wind. The nest is pear-shaped narrowing in the middle,, with a side entrance shaded by a tiny overhanging porch. The materials are the finest grass lines and the nests are prettily decorated by anything that pleases the fancy of the diminutive architects. They lay two or three eggs, greenish white sparkled with brown spots. Although Zizyphus jujuba tree is their favourite place for nests, they do dare to build the same in verandhas and porches of 'dwelling houses.

The Purple Honeysucker, Cinnyris asiatica (Lin. Jerd. 234), is abundant everywhere from the coast to the Sahyadri hills, wherever flowering shrubs are found. The brilliant metallic hue of the male is donned only at the pairing season, although in his winter garb of grey green little trace of his splendid wedding dress remains.

Tickell's Flowerpecker, Dicocum erythrorhynchus (Tick. Jerd. 238), is found in some localities. Being small in size and due to its habits of keeping to the tops of the highest trees, it is difficult to find.

The Thickbilled Flowerpecker, Piprisoma agile (Tick. Jerd. 240), readily distinguished by its peculiar bill from all other birds, is found sparingly at Ratnagiri and also at Sawantwadi.

Upupidae.

Fam.—UPUPIDAE.—The Indian Hoopoe, Sutar, Upupa ceylonensis (Reich. Jerd. 255), is found here and there throughout the district, and is to be seen near all well-wooded villages. In the cold weather these birds associate in small parties of four or five. They feed exclusively on insects.

Tribe-DENTIROSTRES.

Laniadae.

Fam.—LANIADAE.—The Rufousbacked Shrike, Lanius erythronptus, is (Vig. Jerd. 257), commonly found in the district in woods and hedgerows. It is popularly named as butcher bird.

The Baybacked or Hardwick's Shrike, Lanius vittatus (Valenc. Jerd. 260), is comparatively rare and usually found in the forests on the Sahyadri slopes.

The Common Wood Shrike, Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmel. Jerd. 265), is found in the interior as well as on the coast and is very abundant in certain localities, in groves and gardens where it is usually found in flocks.

Campephaginae.

Sub-Fam.—CAMPEPHAGINAE.—The Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike, Volvocivora sykesi (Strick. Jerd. 268), is a very uncommon species obtained in well-wooded parts of the district.

The Large Cuckoo Shrike, Graucalus macei (Less. Jerd. 270), is common everywhere in the village groves and well-wooded tracts. Usually seen in pairs, it feeds entirely on insects and fruits. They build in forks of trees, making shallow cup nest of fine twigs, very loosely put together. The eggs, two or three in number, are of a greenish fawn colour, with pale brownish red spots. This bird has, a very sweet call.

The Orange Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus (Forst. Jerd. 272), J or the Fiery-red Bird sparingly found on the western slopes of the Sahyadris throughout the districts but never near the coast. With its  splendid red breast and glossy blue head and upper plumage, it is one of the most handsome birds in the country. It moves briskly from tree top to tree top chirping incessantly.

The Small Minivet, Pericrocotus perigrinus (Lin. Jerd. 276), is another small beautiful bird found in groves abundantly in all parts of the district. It also frequents low brushwood and hedgerows as well as lofty trees. It makes a very neat cup nest of fine twigs, in the forks of a tree laying two or three greenish white eggs freckled with brick-dust red.

Dicrurinae.

Sub-Fam.—DICRURINAE.—The Common Drongo Shrike, Buchanga  atra, is the commonest bird of the district, and is universally distributed. It is equally plentiful on the bare rocky plateaus near the coast, where, failing trees, it perches on cattle and goats, and in the well-wooded inland tracts. It nests in April and May on forks of trees, laying four pinkish white eggs. It is locally called Govinda,

Artaminae.

Sub-Fam.—ARTAMINAE.—The Ashy Swallow Shrike, Artamus fiscus (Vieill. Jerd. 287), is found in Vengurle cocoanut gardens.

 Muscicapidae.

Farm.—MUSCICAPIDAE.—The Paradise or Royal Flycatcher, Muscipeta paradisi (Linn. Jerd. 288),,is found sparingly in all the well-wooded tracks of the district. The adult-males with their glossy black heads and flying white streamers are conspicuous objects when seen flittering like streaks of silver from tree to tree. It is a restless bird always on the move in pursuit of his prey. It is known as Dhobi bird or Ban Pakhru.

The Whitespotted Fantail, Leucocerca Leucogaster, (Cuv. 293;, an amusing and familiar litde bird is very common. Its quaint manners and grotesque antics are well known. Its dance, a short flight of a few feet, to and from a branch of a tree, followed by a half pirouette, a lowering of head and wings and spreading of the broad tail, is kept up incessantly throughout the day.

The Southern Brown Flycatcher, Alseonax latirostris (Raffl. Jerd. 297), is rare.

The Verditer Flycatcher, stoporala molanops (Vig. Jerd. 301) though rare near the coast is more plentiful in the well-wooded country at the base of the Sahyadri hills.

The Blue Redbreast, cyornis tickelli, (Vig. Jerd. 305 and 306), is distributed sparingly in thick groves. It is usually seen alone, and is a familiar bird.

The Whitetailed Robin or Dwarf Flycatcher, Erythrostorna parva (Boch. Jerd. 323), a familiar little bird, is often seen in clumps of trees in the cold weather and has a confiding way of perching upon tent ropes.

Fam.—MERULIDA, Sub-Fam.—MYIOTHERINA.—The Malabar Whistling Thrush, Myiop'honeus Horieldi, (Vig. Jerd. 342) is found in suitable places all along the Sahyadri range, both on the slopes and at the base of the hills, but does not extend to the coast. Its rich mellow whistle, and its love of mountain waterfalls are well known.

Merulida.

The Indian or Yellowbreasted Ground Thrush, Pitta branchyura (Lin. Jerd. 345), a beautifully plumaged bird, is found sparingly at the base and on the lower slopes of the Sahyadri range.

Merulinae.

Sub-Fam,—MERULINAE.—The Blue Rock Thrush, Cyanocinclus cyanus (Lin. Jerd. 351), is a cold weather visitant, and frequents bare rocky grounds and stony hills. It is almost always alone and feeds on the ground. It is a familiar bird and has a sweet note.

The Blueheaded Chat Thrush, Petrophila cinclorhynchus, (Vig. Jerd. 353), is a pretty bird, chiefly confined to the ravines and slopes of the Sahyadri range.

The Whitewinged Bush Thrush, or Ground-Thrush, Geocichla cyanotia (Jerd. and Self. Jerd. 354), is common and a permanent resident. It is found in gardens, groves and woods from the coast to the slopes of the Sahyadris. These birds breed generally in Mango trees, early in the rains making a cup nest of grass plastered with mud, and placing it low down in the fork of the tree. These little thrushes are very vigorous and bold in defence of their young, and fly at any intruder with intrepidity.

The Blackcapped Black-bird, Merula nigropilae, (Lafr. Jerd. 359), is widely distributed from the coast to the Sahyadri forests. It is a permanent resident which feeds on the ground and also fruit trees. It is more arboreal in its habits.

Timalinae.

Sub-Fam.—TIMALINAE.—The Yelloweyed Babbler, Pyctorhis sinensis, (Gmel. Jerd. 385), is found in small parties flying from bush to bush in low hill side brushwood. It is a noisy bird said to breed in rainy season in bamboo clumps making nests of coarse grass.

The Nilgiri Quaker Thrush, Alcippe poiocephale, (Jerd. 389), is found in the southern part of the district.

The Whitethroated Wren Babbler, Dumetia albogularies (Blyth. Jerd. 398), is comparatively very scarce in this district.

The Spotted Wren Babbler, Pellorneum ruficeps (Swainson Jerd. 399), is also scarce and occasionally seen in small parties in thin bush, both inland and near the coast.

The Southern Scimitar Babbler, Pomatorhinus horsfieldi, (Sykes. Jerd. 404), is found only on the slopes and at the foot of the Sahyadri ranges where it is a permanent resident.

The Rufous-tailed Babbler, Malacocercus-somerviller (Sykes. Jerd. 345), is the common babbler spread abundantly throughout the district. It is common near the coast and inland, in gardens, brush-wood and village groves. It usually feeds on ground, hopping actively about, incessantly uttering their scolding, nagging note. It nests in June and July laving two or three greenish blue eggs and is popularly called Kekati or Chambharin.

Brachypodidae.

Fam.—BEACHYPODIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—PYCNONOTINE.—The Ghat Black Bulbul, Hypsipetes ganeesa (Sykes. Jerd. 446), is very rare and perhaps restricted to the Sahyadri forests.

The Southern Redwhiskered Bulbul, Otocompasa fuscicaudata, (Gould. Jerd. 460), is found abundantly in small flocks, throughout the district. It breeds in the hot month of April and May, in a neat cup-like nest. It is known as Bulandi.

The Common Madras Bulbul, Molpastes haemorrhous (Gmel Jerd. 462), is a familiar abundant bird, which frequents gardens, brushwood, and fruit trees. It is destructive to vegetable gardens. Although, its note is not so sweet, it makes an amusing cage-bird. This bird lays three eggs which are dull reddish in colour. It shows greatest affection for its youngones and will desert them only as a last resort. If the young birds are obtained and kept in the cage, the parents continue to feed them fearlessly even by entering the cage. If one of the parent birds is caught and caged the other will undertake feeding the whole family, through the bars of the cage.

Phyllomithinae.

Sub-Fam.—PHYLLORNTTHINAE.—The common Green Bulbul, Phyl- lornis jeroni, (Blyth. Jerd. 463), is abundant in the well-wooded tracts both on the coast and inland. These birds feed on fruits and insects and are usually found in pairs. The males differ from the females in having the chin and throat deep velvet black, the same parts being bluish green in the females.

The Common Iora, Iora tiphia, (Lin. Jerd. 467 and 468), both the varieties of this are met with sparingly in this district, frequenting gardens, groves and forests, not always in pairs but always on the move. While flying, the black headed males appear exceedingly pretty, coquetting with their tails spread and the silky white eufts fully exposed. They nest in a beautifully made delicate cup of the finest grass and spider web. They are permanent residents like all the bulbuls.

Oriolinae.

Sub-Fam.—ORIOLINAE.—The Indian Oriole, Mango bird or Oriolus kundoo, (Sykes. Jerd. 470), though it is widely distributed, is comparatively rare in this district. The local name for this is Haldi, a very infelicitous term.

The Black-headed Oriole, Oriolus mealanocephalus (Lin. Jerd. 472), is the common type found abundantly where there are trees. It feeds on fruits and its clear mellow note is well-known. Its bright plumage makes it a universal favourite. It nests in rainy season and is a permanent resident.

Fam.—SYLVIADAE.—Sub-Fam.—SAXICOLNAE.—The Magpie Robin, Copsychus saularis, (Lin. Jerd. 475), is found abundantly in gardens, groves, etc. It feeds on insects and has a rather sweet song. It breeds in cavities of trees in April and May laying four or five greenish white eggs. It is very provocative while nesting and attacks fiercely any trespassers. It is locally called by the name Chitko.

Sylviadae.

The Shama, Cercotrichas macrura, (Gmel. Jerd. 476), is rare and probably extends throughout the Sahyadri range.

The Indian Black Robin, Thamnobia fulicata, (Lin. Jerd. 479), is commonly found on the rocky hill sides overhanging creeks and rivers. It does not like thick forests. They breed on the rocks in April and May.

The Whitewinged Black Robin, Pratincola caprata, (Lin. Jerd. 481), is also plentiful, on rocky bushy hills. It is a permanent resident but a less familiar bird.

The Indian Bushchat, Pratincola indica, (Blyth. Jerd. 483), is found sparingly during the fair season in open and stony hillsides, but rather rare. It avoids forests and high trees, perching on walls and low bushes. The whinchats come early in October, the males in brown winter plumage. They stay till late in March, when most of the males are getting their black caps, wings and tails and bright rust red breasts.

Ruticillinae.

Sub-Fam.—RUTICILLINAE.—The Indian Bluethroat, Cyanecula suecica, (Lin. Jerd. 514), is found sparingly in the district. It frequents reeds and long grass on the banks of river beds and mountain streams.

Calamoherpine.

Sub-Fam.—CALAMOHERPINE.—The Lesser Reed Warbler, Acroce-phlus dumetorum, (Blyth. Jerd. 516), an active little bird, is a regular cold weather visitant, but not very common. It habitates trees, bamboo thickets, hedgerows, and high grass by rivers and rice fields. It has a peculiar note which could be likened to the sound of the flint and steel.

Drymocinae.

Sub-Fam.—DRYMOCINAE.—The Indian Tailor Bird, Orthotomus sutorius, (GR. Forster, Jerd. 530), is found sparingly in wooded tracts both inland and near the coasts. They are restless creatures chirping loudly. Their nests are a marvel of skill made up by sewing one or more leaves, according to their size, into a round cup, the stitches being made with cobweb or cotton thread, neatly fastened off and knotted. In the hollow thus formed, a soft deep nest of cotton, wool is laid.

The Ashy Wren Warbler, Prinia socialis, (Sykes. Jerd. 534), has also similar habits.

The Malabar's Wren Warbler, Prinia hodgscni, (Blvth. Jerd. 538), is perhaps the most common and found in pairs and small parties, in bushes and trees all through the district. Its nest is also like that of a true tailor bird.

The Rufous Grass Warbler or Pinc-Pinc, Cisticola cursitans (Frankl. Jerd. 539), is found here and there on standing corn, or reeds etc., but is rare.

The common Wren Warbler, Drymoeca inornata, (Sykes. Jerd. 543 and 544) is found sparingly in corn fields and hedgerows, both inland and near the coast. In weaving bottle-shaped nests it lays greenish blue eggs.

The Great Rufous Wren Warbler, Drymoeca rufescen (Hume, ferd 544 bis.) is found in old forts.

Phylloscopinae.

Sub-Fam.—PHYLLOSCOPINAE.—The Bright Green Tree Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus, (Lath. Jerd. 559) is plentiful throughout the district in the cold weather. The bright colours seen on arrival soon fade.

The Large Crowned Warbler, Reguloides occipitalis (Jerd, 563) is a rare winter visitant.

Motacillinae.

Sub-Fam.—MOTACILLINAE.—The Pied Wagtail, Motacilla maderas- patensis, (Gmel. Jerd. 589) is the common wagtail of the district found on the banks of rivers and creeks and in rice fields, either alone or in pairs. It breeds during the hot weather.

The Blackfaced Wagtail, Motacilla dakhanensis, (Sykes. Jerd. 591 bis), is also plentiful in cold weather and is found in rice fields. It is seen only in its winter dress with grey head and white throat.

The Grey and Yellow Wagtail, Cahloates melanope, (Pallas. Jerd. 592),is found in the same situation in rice fields, on banks of rivers and ponds, inland as well as near the coast.

The Ashyheaded Field Wagtail Budytes cinereo-capilla (Savi. Jerd. 593) appears in small flocks in the cold weather and feeds in open fields. The plumage of this and other allied forms varies.

The Tree Pipit, Authus trivalis (Lin. Jerd. 597), comes in small flocks in October and frequents gardens and corn fields, often perching on trees, is common both in inland and near the coast.

The Tree Pipit, Anthus trivalis (Lin. Jerd. 597), comes in small flocks in October and frequents gardens and corn fields, often perching on trees, and is common both in inland and near the coast.

The Indian Titlark, Corydalla rufula (Vieill. Jerd. 600), frequents rice fields and open cultivated grounds, and is common both inland and near the coast.

The Southern Yellow Tit, Machlohphus aplonotus (Bly. Jerd. 648). This handsome little bird is common in well wooded tracts. It is gregarious in habit and hunts for fruit and insects on the high trees with great activity.

Tribe.-CONIROSTRES.

Corvinae.

Sub-Fam.—CORVINAE.—The Indian or Bowbilled Corby, Corvus macrorhynchus (Wagl. Jerd. 660), is abundant in this district in almost every village, and is usually associated with the common crow.

It makes rough stick nests lined with hair, fibre, etc. and lays usually four eggs. It is popularly known as Domkawala.

The common or Ashynecked Indian Crow, Corvus Splendens (Vieill. Jerd. 663), is equally abundant and makes similar nests. It is always seen congregating soon after sunset, and in straggling parties flying off with much clatter to their chosen roosts, often some miles distant from the scene of their daily depredations. Mangrove swamps are often patronised by it. With it settling down for the night is work of time and is only accomplished after incessant squabbles and a tedious and long process of summary ejectments and hardworn recoveries. A report of gun produces the wildest confusion. It is popularly known as Son-Kawala.

The Indian Magpie, Dendrocitta rufa (Scop. Jerd. 674), is distributed in small numbers throughout the district in well-wooded tracts, both inland and near the coast. Its peculiar and inimitable whistle always betrays its presence in a grove or a forest. It wanders about the country in search of food. It is popularly known as a paritin or water-woman.

Struninae.

Sub-Fam.—STRUNINAE.—The Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis (Lin. Jerd. 684), is very rare in the district. It breeds in the rainy season in cavities of trees laying four or five white eggs.

The Dusky Myna, Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler. Jerd. 686), is abundant throughout the district, and more especially in the well-wooded tracts. It nests in the hot weather, April and May, in holes of trees. The nests are loose and jubbled. They gather towards dusk and roost in large flocks. The local name for both is salunki.

The Pagoda or Blackheaded Brahmani Myna, Sturnia pagodarum (Gmel. Jerd. 687), is found in the southern parts. It feeds both on the ground and on fruits.

The Rosecoloured Starling or Javari Bird, Pastor rosens (Lin. Jerd. 690), comes in the cold weather in considerable numbers. It repairs to well-wooded tracts after the winter crops are reaped. It leaves for its summer quarters late in April. It is popularly known as Kalpi.

Fringillidae.

Fam.—FRINGILLIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—PLOCEINAE.—The Common Weaver bird or Little Baya, Ploceus Philippinus (Lin. Jerd. 694), is found everywhere in vast flocks in winter. It is gregarious in roosting. The nests are made of coir fibre or strong grass. The local name for it is bhorade.

Estreldinae.

Sub-Fam.—ESTRELDINAE.—The Spotted Munia, Amadina punc-tualata (Lin. Jerd. 699), is partially distributed and seen in flocks in the cold weather frequenting rice fields away from the coast.

The Whitebacked Munia, Amadina striata (L. Jerd. 700), is common everywhere in gardens, from the coast to the Sahyadris. It is social in its habits. The nests are globular balls of grass with a side entrance covered with dry blades of nachani.

Passerinae.

Sub-Fam.—PASSERINAE.—The house sparrow, passer domesticus (Lin. Jerd. 706), is perhaps less common than in other districts. The yellow neck variety is also seen.

Alaudinae

Sub-Fam.—ALAUDINAE—The Black-bellied Finch Lark Purrhulauda grisea, (Scop. Jerd. 760). This little lark called Bhatki is abundant throughout the district. Especially plentiful on the bare laterite plateau. The nest is a soft little pad of fine grass lined with pieces of wool. The little larks have many enemies. Snakes and cowherds destroy their eggs. The keen-eyed harriers and kites are constantly on a look-out all over the bare rocky plains in search of an inviting feast.

The Southern Crown Crest, Spizalauda malabarica (Scop. Jerd. 765) is common throughout the district in open plains, rocky plateaus, and grassy table-lands. It is a good songster, and sings loudly on the wing. The nests are hidden under cover of grass or found on the bare rock, sheltered by a stone. The nests are made of grass in which two or three eggs are laid. It is locally known as Chendul or Ghorpi.

The Indian sky-lark, Alauda gulgula, (Frankl. Jerd. 767), is known to have been found in the southern parts of the district, and is rare.

Order-GEMITORES.

Gemitores.

The pigeons and doves found in this district, comprise two species of green pigeon, one wood pigeon, the blue rock pigeon, five turtle doves and one ground dove. The green pigeon and the spotted dove are common while the rest are more or less scarce.

Teronidae.

Fam.—TERONIDAE.—The southern green pigeon, Crocopus chlori- gaster, (Blyth. Jerd. 773), is found abundantly, both inland and near the coast in well wooded tracts. A banyan or a pimpal or a large bor, attracts them. They are very shy and easily disturbed. Their flesh makes a good dish. It is locally known as pusava.

The Malbar or Greyfronted Green Pigeon, Osmotreron malabarica, (Jerd. 775), is found in the inland in well wooded tracts but is never seen near the coast. It associates in considerable flocks in groves and forests. The eyes both of this and the last species are exceedingly beautiful, an inner ring of crimson enclosed in an outer circle of blue, which when blended, give a violet hue to the whole iris.

Columbidae.

Fam.—COLUMBIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—PALUMBINAE.—The Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Palumbus Elphinstonii, (Sykes. Jerd. 786), it occurs along the Sahyadrian range.

Columbinae.

Sub-Fam.—COLUMBINAE.—The Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba intermedia, (Strickl. Jerd. 788), is comparatively scarce in this district as are other grain feeding birds, as the land is too poor for them. They are also found in the massive old sea walls of Suvarnadurga and on the rocks of Vengurla, a few miles from the mainland. They seem to hoard grain in their homes for use during the stormy weather which if true is a good illustration of the development of an instinct to meet exceptional needs.

Turturinae.

Sub-Fam.-TURTURINAE.—The Spotted or Speckled Dove, Turtur surantensia, (Gmel. Jerd. 795), is the common dove which is abundant in this district and is found everywhere. It almost replaces the little brown dove. Its nest is found at all times. It lays glossy white eggs. The nests are thin, flat stick platforms so thin at the bottom that it is always a wonder that the eggs do not tumble through, and so flat that the eggs seem always in danger of being rolled over the sides. Cactus bushes and low trees are the favourite sites for their nests. It is locally called kavada.

The Common Ring Dove, Turtur risorius, (Lin. Jerd. 796), is found occasionally in large flocks on the low lands in winter, disappearing entirely at the approach of the hot weather and in all probability returning to the Deccan plains to breed.

Gouridae.

Fam.—GOURIDAE.—The Emerald Dove, Chalcophas indica, (Lin Jerd. 798). It does not like thick forest and is rarely found away from the coast.

Order-RASORES.

Rasores.

The district is poorly supplied with gallinaceous birds. Sand grouse, Painted Francolins, and Grey Partridges are entirely wanting and Grey and Rain Quails are so scarce that they are hardly worth the trouble of beating for. The only game bird that is at all available, is the pretty little jungle bush quail or dwarf partridge, found on all the bushy hill sides that overhang the deep valleys and ravines intersecting the rugged country. Jungle fowl and spur fowl are rarely seen away from the Sahyadrian forests while Pea Fowl are though more widely distributed, nowhere plentiful. The following species are known to occur.—

Phasianidae.

Fam.—PHASIANIDAE.—The common peacock, Mor, Pavo cristatus, (Lin. Jerd. 803), is found sparingly throughout the district on the stiff slopes well clad with trees overhanging large tidal creeks. They may be seen about sunset on the banks where they come to feed. Inland they resort to large temple groves with luxuriant undergrowth. They breed during the rainy season and the males begin to assume their splendid trains in May.

Galinae.

Suh-Fam.—GALLINAE.—The Grey Jungle Fowl, Gallus sonnerati, (Tem. Jerd. 813), popularly known as Ran-Komhada, is found in the Sahyadrian range. Its eggs are sometimes set under domestic hens but it is difficult to rear up the chicks in confinement,

Tetraonidae.

Fam.—TETRAONIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—Perdicinae —The Jungle Bush Quail, or Dwarf Partridge, Perdicula asiatica, (Lath. Jerd. 826), is to some extent found on the hill sides. When first flushed, they rise together to the thickest cover from where it is difficult to dislodge them. They call their companions incessantly, if separated, and reunite quickly if possible. They feed on forest glades, hill paths, etc. They can be caught on the dark-nights with the aid of torches, being completely dazed by the light, they fall an easy prey.

Caturicinae.

Sub-Fam.—COTURICINAE.—The Large Grey Quail, Coturnix com- munis, (Bonn. Jerd. 829), is very rare and may be found in the cold weather in the fields of tur and other winter crops.

Tinamidae.

Fam.-TINAMIDAE.-The Black Breasted Bustard Quail, Turnix taigcor, (Sykes. Jerd. 832), is found in tur crops on the banks of rivers. The absence of hind toes in this species distinguishes it from all other quails. The females of this species are larger and more boldly marked than the males.

The Button Quail, Turnix dussumieri, durva, (Tem. Jerd. 835), is widely distributed but is nowhere common or abundant. It is found in groves, thin brushwood and tilled land. It is almost always flushed singly, rarely in pairs and never in broods. It is probably a permanent resident.

Order—GRALLATORES.

Grallatores.

The numerous tidal creeks and backwaters, whose: soft mud banks harbour myriads of molluscs, crabs, aquatic insects, and other slimy but inviting morsels, and the rice fields, mangrove swamps, and salt marshes with which the coast portion of the district abounds attract a large and motley company of waders or shore birds. They are the only game birds worth the name. The aquatic waders are more numerous than others. The golden plover and the pretty little ringed plover who divide their attentions equally between river sides and grassy plains are rather common. Amongst longirostres, snipe, sandpipers, and surlews are numerous, while the godwits and stints are either rare or entirely absent. Despite the humid climate and large area of swampy lands the, tribe of latitores is rare. Amongst the culti-rosters only one species of stork occurs. The herons and egrets are numerously represented.

Tribe-PRESSIROSTRES.

Curseridae.

Fam.—CURSERIDAE.—The Indian Courser, Cursorius coromandelicus, (Gmel. Jerd. 840), is found on the laterite plateau although it is very rare.

Charadridae.

Sub-Fam.—CHARADRIDAE.—The Grey Plover, Squatarola helvetica, (Gmel. Jerd. 844), though rare can be found in the winter near the coast or on the banks of tidal creeks.

The Golden Plover, Charadrius fulvus, (Gmel. Jerd. 845), is seen in small flocks on the muddy banks of tidal rivers. They resort to rice fields during the high tide, returning to the banks with the receding tide. They are constantly seen in their handsome nuptial plumage late in May.

The Large Sand Plover, Aggialitis geoffroyi, (Wagler, Jerd. 846), is also found on the coast. The lesser sand plover is fcund abundantly on the sea shore and tidal creeks only in large flocks. It is exceedingly confiding by nature.

The Indian or Small Ringed Plover, Aegilaitis curonicus, (Gmel Jerd. 849), frequents river banks and rice fields. Its neat and conspicuous black and white collar distinguishes it from other species. It is also found on drier land.

Vanellinae.

Sub-Fam.—VANELLINAE.—The red wattled lapwing, Lobivanellus indicus, (Bodd. Jerd. 855), popularly called titvi, is plentiful near the rivers, streams and rice fields. It is a permanent resident, laying typical eggs.

Esacinae.

Sub-Fam.—ESACINAE.—The Indian Stone Plover, Cedicnemus scolo-pax, (S. G. Gm. Jerd. 859), is sparingly found on the laterite plateau under cover of the thin stunted bushes or coarse grass.

Hoematepodidae.

Fam.—HOEMATEPODIDAE.—The Oyster Catcher or Sea Pie, Hoema-topus ostralegus, (Lin. Jerd. 862), is a winter visitant to the coast and large tidal creeks in small flocks. It feeds on the mud banks, picking up shell fish, frequently standing in the water up to its knees, probing with its long bill in the mud.

Tribe—LONGIROSTERS.

Totaninae.

Sub-Fam.—TOTANINAE.—The Spotted Sandpiper, Rhyacophila glareola, (Lin. Jerd. 891), is occasionally found in winter by the edges of reedy ponds and in flooded rice fields.

The Green Sandpiper, Tonanus ochropus, (Lin. Jerd. 892), is more plentiful in the district than the last, but is nowhere abundant. It frequents river banks, marshes and rice fields. It is usually solitary.

Of the Common Sandpiper, Tringoides hypoleucus, (Lin. Jerd. 893), the little snippet is one of the most common and widely distributed birds. In the cold weather, throughout the length and breadth of the district, on the sandy beach, on rocks jutting into the sea, in the tidal estuaries, on sand and mud banks, in mangrove swamps and salt marshes, in rice fields and on margins of ponds, by mountain streams and rivulets, this industrious little bird is found, while the spotted and green sand-piper are less common. These birds come early in winter and stay till the beginning of May. The local name for all the sandpipers is Tivala.

The Greenshanks, Totanus glottis, (Lin. Jerd. 894), and the Redshanks, Totanus Calidris, (L. Jerd. 897), are plentiful during the cold season on all the rivers and tidal creeks.

Tribe—LATITORES.

Parridae.

Fam.—PARRIDAE.—The Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, (Scop. Jerd. 901), visits in winter in small flocks all over the district in large ponds grown with weeds. They are shy and restless, always on the alert and circling round the pond before again alighting. They leave in the hot weather.

Ralliade.

Fam.—RALLIADE.—Sub-Fam.—GALLINULINAE.—The Bald or Common Coot. Pankombadi, Fulica atra, (Lin. Jerd. 903), was said to have been plentiful in the past, but it seems to have forsaken its old haunts and as in the case of ducks has also decreased.

The Water Hen, Gallinula Chloropus, (Lin. Jerd. 903). It may be found in almost any little frequented reedy pond. These birds are. great skulkers, and are flushed with difficulty. Their local name is Gajea.

The White Breasted Water Hen, Erythra phoenicura, (Pennant Jerd. 907), is distributed sparingly throughout the district, but found nearer the coast than inland, it makes its habitation in mangrove swamps and bushes by the banks of tidal creeks. It breeds during the rainy season in hedges and thickets far from water.

Rallinae.

Sub-Fam.—RALLINAE.—The Pigmy Rail or Bailon's Crake, Zapornis pygmaea (Naum) or Porzana Bailloni (Vieill. Jard. 910), seems common throughout the district. It is found by the edges of reedy 'ponds, in mangrove swamps and in flooded rice fields.

Tribe-CULTIROSTRES.

Ciconidae.

Fam.—CICONIDAE.—The White-necked Stork, kandesar or kaner, Dissura episcopa, (Bood. Jerd. 920), is sparingly seen in many parts of the district. It is sometimes seen by the banks of the rivers and sometimes inland far from water. It is rarer in the neighbourhood of the coast than inland.

Ardeidae.

Fam.—ARDEIDAE.—The Common or Blue Heron, Ardea Cinerea, (Lin. Jerd. 923), is found during the cold season on large tidal rivers. It feeds on the mud banks and in mangrove swamps as a rule, unlike the next species, with no attempt at concealment. The local name for this and the purple heron is dok or to be more exact dhok.

The Purple Heron, Ardea Purpurea, (Lin. Jerd. 924), is also found during the cold months, but is not so plentiful. It keeps more to the thick cover of high reeds that fringe the course of the tidal rivers.

The Smaller White Heron or Egret, Herodias torra, (Buch. Ham. Jerd. 925), as distinguished from the white heron of Europe, Ardea alba, (Lin.), is abundant on all the big rivers of the district, from October to May. Shortly after their bills have turned from yellow to black and they have assumed their splendid dorsal trains, thev disappear to breed. Towards sunset they gather in vast numbers to wend their way to clumps of mangrove trees, which form common roosting places for them. The local name for all the white egrets, large and small is bali.

The Little Egret, Herodias garzetta, (Lin. Jerd. 927), is still more plentiful than the last, throughout the cold and hot weather, dis-appears at the first burst of the rainy season. Its habits are in every way similar to those of the last. The familiar little egret strays further inland and during daytime is found by every rustic stream and 'water course. It has a crest of two elongated white-feathers and marked breast plumes, both of which are wanting in the Preceding species. The train also lasts longer than in other members of the family.

The Ashy Egret, Demiegretta gularis, (Bosc. Jerd. 928), is found sparingly on the large creeks during the fair season, and usually in company with the white egrets, whom it resembles in its habits, being lonely by day and gregarious by night.

The Cattle Egret, Bubulcus coromandus, (Bodd. Jerd. 929) though less plentiful than the little egret, is spread throughout the district. It roosts in company with the other members of its family, but keeps in flocks during the day time and is never alone. Its habits of following cattle wherever grazing is well known, but like other egrets, it feeds also on fish and tadpoles. Rice fields are its favourite feeding grounds. During the rainy season this bird disappears from the district presumably to breed elsewhere. If wounded or caught alive it is very easily tamed and is an amusing pet, being especially active, after lamps are lighted, in gobbling up the innumerable insects attracted by the lights. These birds would appear to have a horror of thunder and lighting.

The Indian Pond Heron, bagla or koko, Ardeola grayii, (Sykes. Jerd. 930), is very abundant throughout the district in swamps and rice fields, ponds and rivers. Its habits are well known. It dons its full breeding plumage, long white crest and dark maroon train about the end of May, and is almost completely transformed by the process.

The Little Green Bittern, Butorides javanica, (Horsf. Jerd. 931), found throughout the district on all the creeks and rivers, is especially plentiful in the mangrove swamps. It is a permanent resident and breeds in April and May. The nests are small flat stick platforms placed in- trees or bushes overhanging water, and are well hid from view. The eggs are of a pure pale sea green, or eau-de Nil colour. This species is chiefly nocturnal in its habits, seldom coming out of its thick cover before sunset. The villagers call this bird Khajan Kombada or swamp hen.

The Night-heron, Nycticorax griseus, (Lin. Jerd. 937), is obtained rarely and owing to its nocturnal habits, is difficult to find.

Ibisinae.

Sub-Fam.—IBISINAE.—The White Ibis melanocephala, (Lath. Jerd. 941), is found in small parties during the cold season feeding on the mud banks of the large tidal rivers, it is gregarious by day and roosts by night with the herons, egrets, etc. This species as well as the curlew and whimbrel. is called kuri by the villagers.

Order-NATATORES.

Natatores.

The first great tribe of this order, the Lamellirostres, comprising flamingoes, geese, and duck is very poorly represented both in species and individuals. Of true geese there are none. The spur-winged black-backed goose, the ruddy shieldrake or Brahmani duck, the sole members of the family of Anseridae who are the whistling teal and the little goslet or cotton teal and flamingoes are found rarely. Six species of true ducks and two of diving ducks or pochards have been recorded; bnt of these, only two, the wigeon and the common teal, are at all more common. Of the margidae or Mergansers representatives occur. Few ducks, are found at any great distance from the coast. Here and there an old disused pond attracts a small party of gadwalls, teals or pochards. Of the Mergitores, the little grobe or dabchick is the sole representative. The next tribe, the Vagatores, contributes four kinds of gulls and five of terns; the other family of this tribe, the Procellaridae, consisting of albatrosses and petrels, being unrepresented. Lastly, the large tribe of Piscatores has but two representatives, the little cormorant and the snake bird.

Tribe-LAMELLIROSTRES.

Phoenicopteridae.

Fam.—PHOENICOPTERIDAE.—The Flamingo, Phoenicopeterus anti- quorum (Pallas Jerd. 944), visits in small numbers, the large tidal backwater to the north of Ratnagiri fort during the cold weather.

Anseridae.

Fam —ANSERIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—NETTAPODINAE.—The Whitebodied Goose Teal or Cotton Teal, Nettapus coromandelianus, (Gmel. Jerd, 951), a cold weather visitant is comparatively scarce. It is often alone and does not appear to be a permanent resident.

Tadominae.

Sub-Fam.—TADORNINAE.—The Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna Java- nika, (Horsf. Jerd. 952), is very rare in this district.

Anatidae.

Fam.—ANATIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—ANATINAE.—The Shoveller, Spatula Clypeata, (Lin. Jerd. 957), is also a rare species in this district.

The Gadwall, Chaulelasmus streperus, (Lin. Jerd. 961), is found in small parties here and there throughout the district during the cold weather, in reedy ponds and in larger rivers, but is by no means abundant. It makes an excellent eating.

The Wigeon, Mareca penelope, (Lin. Jerd. 963), is the only species of duck at all abundant in the district; but it is very locally distributed. These birds are late in coming, but fatten very rapidly and are excellent birds for the table. They feed by day in the Swamps and lagoons, and generally about sunset gather on the open water.

The Common Teal, Querquedula crecca, (Lin. Jerd. 964), comes early in the cold weather in small flocks and though nowhere very plentiful, is widely distributed throughout the district, frequenting alike open rivers, reedy ponds and flooded rice fields.

The Bluewinged or Garganey Teal, Querquedula Circia, (Lin. Jerd. 965), which is more rare, prefers lonely ponds.

Fuligulinae.

Sub-Fam.—FULIGULINAE.—The White-eyed Duck, Fuligula nyroca (Guld. Jerd. 969), is a rare bird in the district. The golden eyed or tufted duck, Fuligula oristata, (L. Jerd. 971), has also been found in this district. The local vernacular name for all the species of Anatidae is adla or Badak.

Tribe-MERGITORES.

Podicipidae.

Fam.—PODICIPIDAE.—The little Grebe or Dabchick, Podiceps minor (Lin. Jerd. 975), is found throughout the district, in pools and reservoirs, wherever there are rushes and floating aquatic weeds to afford cover. It is probably a cold weather visitant only. The local name for this and indeed all other diving birds is pan-bud.

Tribe—VAGATORES.

Laridae.

Fam.—LARIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—LARINAE.—The Slaty Herring' Gull, Larus affinis, (Jerd. 978, ter.), sparingly occurs on the coast.

The Great Blackheaded Gull, Larus inchthyaetus, is,(Pallas, Jerd. 979), reported to be seen on the coast in the past but is now rare.

The Brownheaded Gull, Larus brunneicephalus, (Jerd. 980), is abundant throughout the cold season on the coast and main tidal estuaries, and for some miles up the larger rivers. It associates in large flocks. In winter the brown plumage of the head and neck is replaced almost entirely by white.

The Laughing Gull, Larus ridibundus, (Lin. Jerd. 981), appears to be much rare than the preceding species. The vernacular name for all the gulls is Kira.

Sterninae.

Sub-Fam.—STERNINAE.—The Gullbilled Tern, Sterna anglica, (Mont. Jerd. 983), is found for the greater part of the year, on all the tidal rivers, both near the coast and far inland, either alone or in small parties.

The Whitechecked Tern, Sterna Albigena, (Licht. Jerd. 986), arrives on the Ratnagiri coast in considerable numbers towards the end of September.

The Little Tern, sterna saundersi, (Hume. Jerd. 988), also visits the coast and tidal rivers in the cold weather arriving with the last species in September.

The Large Sea Tern, Sterna bergii, (Lichst. Jerd. 989), has not been found of late.

The Smaller Sea Tern, Sterna media, (Horsf. Jerd. 990, Jerd. 984) in all probability occurs in this district. The vernacular word for terns is Kira, the same as for gull.

Tribe—PISCATORES.

Graculidae.

Fam.—GBACULIDAE.—Sub-Fam.—GRACULINAE.—The little Cormorant or Shag, Phalacracorax pygaeus, (Pall. Jerd. 1007), is exceedingly common throughout the district on all the larger rivers. It appears on the approach of the rainy season to leave the district and go elsewhere to breed. By day it is sometimes alone and sometimes in small parties.. These industrious fishers travel many miles up the rivers in search of choice hunting grounds, returning to a common roost at night. Standing on the banks of any of the large rivers about sundown, one may see thousands wending their way to their chosen roost, skimming over the surface of the water in a continuous succession of small parties. They are called by the villagers pan-kavala or water-crows.

Water-crows. Plotinae.

Sub-Fam.—PLOTINAE.—The Indian Snake Bird or Anhinga, Pan-buda, Plotus melanogaster (Gmel. Jerd. 1008), is also plentiful throughout the district, frequenting alike large and small rivers. It is probably a permanent resident, but its nests have not been discovered. Like the heron and cormorant, it is usually solitary by day and gregarious at night.

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