The Gazetteers Department

The relief features of the district are essentially the product of its geological past, the nature of its geological composition—an account of which is given elsewhere—and the agents of denudation working on the geological mantle. The outstanding feature in the relief of the district is its highly uneven nature and the very narrow riverine plains that fringe the coast-line. Over 85 per cent. of the land surface is hilly. On the east this consists of the steep and forbidding scarp of the main Sahyadris. In the centre are the transverse chains of small hills, which projecting from the main range, develop higher elevations in their middle portions. These are separated from each other by undulating plateaus which gain in area and scenic effect westwards as the coast-line is approached. The coast-line is irregular marked by alternating bluff and curving bays, but it is shallow and hence has a limited use for navigation. The landscape of the Ratnagiri district is basically influenced by the Deccan lavas which cover most of the area except the southern and south-eastern part which is underlain by metamorphic types. The typical lava landscape developed under tropical humid conditions persists almost everywhere. But locally even this general aspect has five different types, the coast line, the estuarine alluvial plains and basins of the main rivers, the laterite plateaus, the highly eroded remnant hills. partly detached from and partly connected to the main range, and the scarp face of the Sahyadris proper. These patterns as they occur from west to east, are described in detail below:—

Coast-line.

The coast-line of the district extends to about 250 miles. It is uniformly rocky and shallow, though locally there is a good deal of variation in the form of projecting bluffs and promontories that enclose small sandy bays. These are interspersed by estuaries of the more important rivers and the mouths of numerous minor streams. All these variations in relief exercise a very significant influence on the scenic features of the landscape and their economic use by the inhabitants of the district. The coast-line is marked with several islands the result of a drowned topography. Those like Suvarndurg, Malvan and Narayandurg were important Maratha forts. The shallow sea and silted estuaries make navigation difficult except for the smallest craft. The bluffs and promontories are underlain by hard laterite; they support little vegetation and only the narrow fringe at their base are marked here and there, by lines of cocoanut palms and patches of cultivation in an area that is generally strewn with large eroded boulders. The bare and rocky appearance of the headlands continues over the wider plateaus in the interior. Only the small alluvial estuaries are useful for agriculture. The junction between such fertile patches and barren lateritic slopes generally favours the development of villages. The head lands have played a very important role as forts in the Maratha history.

Estuarine Plains and River Basins.

The central portion of the district is furrowed by numerous streams which have mostly a parallel drainage pattern. Rising from the Sahyadrian scarp these streams drain the waters to the Arabian Sea through a region that is hilly and mostly bare. Their basins, accordingly, are narrow and rocky. Their flood regime is also unsuitable for the development of good soil and agriculture. Thus the upper and middle reaches of these rivers do not favour much economic development. Only the estuarine portions have comparatively good soils, and they indeed form agriculturally the best lands of the district. Such, for example, are the Savitri. the Vasishthi and the Shastri estuaries.

Lateritic Plateaus.

So broad is the expanse of the plateau of the Ratnagiri district that the deeply entrenched river courses are hardly visible from the plateau surface. Scientists are still not agreed as to the origin of these plateau surfaces though opinion seems to favour the view that they are the products of the lateritic material brought down from the Sahyadrian hill regions. Compact and undulating, these plateaus offer bleak landscape; bare rock often craggy in appearance, grasses of the poorest type and an occasional shrub make up the typical scenery in these plateaus. Their transition to lower levels is maked by abrupt slopes to entrenched river courses, and to higher levels by more gradual slopes to residual basaltic hills that traverse the central portions of the district.

Residual Hills.

These residual hills, oddly enough, present a contrast in appearance. Being made of lava flows they show the typical banded and terraced form, with a pronounced tendency to develop flat tops and smoother contours. But the tropical humid heat as well as the heavy monsoonal downpour cause intense gully erosion and development of a furrowed appearance on these hill features. However, they break the monotony of the lateritic plateaus by their appearance and vegetation cover which more often consists of strands of rich monsoonal forests. While lateritic plateaus seldom rise more than 500 feet above sea level, these hills record generally higher elevations varying from 600 to 1,100 feet above sea level. Many of these hills, owing to their commanding position became strategic fortified points during the Maratha period. Thus Mandangad, about 14 miles from Dapoli, is a conspicuous landmark for many miles around. South-east of Mandangad lies Palgad (1,091 ft.). Nearer the Sahyadrian scarp these detatched hills are in fact a physical 'outlier' of the main range separated from it by an agelong process of denudation and underlain by hard basaltic core. As forts controlling the Sahyadrian passes, from the Konkan side, Mahipatgad (3,090 ft.) in the extreme north, Sumargad (3,090 ft.), Rasalgad (1,770 ft.) facing the Amboli Ghat, Mashal (3,348 ft.) opposite the Vishalgad route, were important in Maratha history.

Sahyadrian Main Range.

While the hills of the central parts of the district, as viewed from the heights of the main range such as Mahabaleshvar or Vishalgad or Bavada, display a chaotic arrangement in trend lines and from the main range of the Sahyadris as seen from the Konkan approaches offers an imposing sight in its vastness and splendour. The crest-line is smooth though often notched by saddles and rising flat tops. The dark lava bands of which the Sahyadris are in this section made up, extend across the bare face of the scarp, in succession at various levels and separating the weaker rocks which support a typical monsoonal vegetation. The scarp face has suffered heavy erosion, so that several portions have been detached from the main range and they appear as isolated small plateau or in extreme cases as pillars standing out prominently to create a scenery of fantasy. Although these are detached and isolated forms, their genetic relationship with the main range is clearly visible through the arrangement of the horizontal lava bands. The scarp face proper is steep and is marked by a succession of amphitheatres of drainage where the numerous gullies flowing down the scarp wall coalesce to create the rivers flowing across the central and western parts of the district, to drain the waters to the Arabian Sea. The scarp wall is regarded as the fractured face of the Sahyadris, though it is more than likely that in its present position it marks a recession from the actual zone-where faulting must have initially taken place. The wall retains its typically ' trap' or stair-like appearance, but is furrowed intensively by the fast flowing streams. The more resistant of the Deccan lavas stand out prominently as hill chains, and being thus linked to the main range, they appear as transverse hills with east-west trend to the main range which has a general north-south trend. Thus the scarp face from north to south is a succession of sections marked by drainage amphitheatres and intervening residual hills. These physical features of the Sahyadrian scarp are all too prominent in their youthful appearance. The crest of the Sahyadris, on the other hand, shows a contrast that is both amazing and spectacular. On the Sahyadrian top levels, on one hand there are precipitous depths with rapidly flowing streams and crumbling rock formations that are hurled down by the monsoonal torrents; and literally, within a furlong to the east of the scarp, one comes across a gentle undulating topography that shows all the features of a mature landscape. Such features are quite familiar to visitors to Mahabaleshwar. Bavda and Amboli. This great contrast in land form has got another significance. So rapid is the erosion on the scarp face, that the scarp itself is receding eastwards by devouring the gentle landscapes of the Deccan plateau. There are several river captures from the plateau areas, i.e., diversions of waters from the east-flowing rivers to the west, and thus the peaks, the plateau levels, and the passes which mark the crest-line of the Sahyadrian main range and which have influenced the past and present of the people are essentially Nature's creations through this gigantic process of erosion. The crest-line records an average height of about 2,500 ft. above sea-level, with plateau tops and saddles being the local variations. In the Maratha history, these became famous forts like Bhairavgad (2,990 ft.), Shivgad (2,371 ft), Prachitgad (3,127 ft.), Manohar (2,500 ft.) and Mansantoshgad (2,500 ft.). The lower saddles became the pass routes connecting this part: of the Konkan with the plateau regions to the east. Thus from the north to south are the Hatlot pass, Ambavli ghat, Kumbharli, Tivra, Mala, South Tivra, Kundi, Amba, Vishalgad, Anaskura, Bavda, Phonda, Amboli (in Sawantwadi), Ram, and several other ghats. Of these, the more important now are the Ambavli connecting Khed with Mahabaleshwar; the Kumbharli, Chiplun with Karad; the Amba, Ratnagiri with Kolhapur; the Phonda, Deogad with Nipani; and the Amboli, Sawantwadi with Belgaum.

Rivers their form, flood regime and navigability.

As has been said above, the drainage of the district is mostly parallel, but the tributary pattern in the centre tends at places to be rectangular, suggesting the adaptation of streams to local rock structure. This adaptation to structure is also well seen in the sharp meanders which many rivers show in their middle and lower reaches. The major rivers receive their waters from the Sahyadrian main range, and flow westwards to the Arabian Sea through deep well cut channels. In length, they seldom exceed forty miles. Each of them, however, has a small drainage area and hence they are of small size and volume. Their intensely seasonal regime is yet another limitation to their economic use. In the monsoonal seasons, they become rushing torrents of water, but during the rest of the year, they develop threaded channels of sluggish or stagnant water in the otherwise dry and bouldery beds, with hardly a capacity for fulfilling the local need for drinking water. This seasonal regime and the deeply entrenched nature of their beds make the rivers of the district unsuitable for irrigation though attempts are now under way to develop lift irrigation and bunding under modern methods of engineering. Inspite of these natural drawbacks, the rivers are of great value to the district, particularly from the point of view of navigation. Their channels navigable for 20 miles or more, in conjunction with roads between the ports and their Deccan hinterland, afford easy means of communication and facilitate commerce. Their broad estuaries are suitable for local craft engaged in coastal trade, and along their low tidal banks are found some of the best agricultural lands of the district.

Besides the larger rivers, there are many small streams, creeks, and inlets, which have no communication with the interior. And during the south-west monsoon innumerable little rills and rivulets springing up in all directions drain into patches of level ground and convert them into good rice fields.

Savitri.

This is the northernmost of the more important rivers of the district, and as has been already noted it acts as a boundary for about 24 miles between this district and the Kolaba district. The river takes its rise from the Mahabaleshwar hill complex. In the local Hindu tradition, it is one of the five sacred rivers, the Panch Gangas, which owe their source in the sanctified region of Mahabaleshwar. The Savitri in its course of about 50 miles, has an ungraded course in the region of the Sahyadrian main range, with rocky channel and steep banks. Outside the mountain tract it develops a meandering course and passes by the town of Mahad in the Kolaba district. The old port of Mhapral marks the northern boundary of the Ratnagiri district. From this point to the region of the mouth of the river, it does not receive any tributary. The mouth is marked by bluffs jutting out on either side into the sea. It is on the southern headland that the historically well known Bankot fort is situated. The old fort is in ruins, and on the shores of the creek are traces of the first English Residency in the southern Konkan. Bankot is only a fair weather port. A formidable sand bar makes anchorage difficult. The port can be used only by small roasting vessels. The river is navigable for about 36 miles upstream to the town Mahad in Kolaba, but only for small vessels drawing seven feet of water Large vessels can go only up to Mhapral in Ratnagiri district about 24 miles from the mouth of the river. Between Bankot and Mhapral, the passage is smooth and large crafts work up on a single tide. But between Mhapral and Mahad the river narrows, and shoals, rocky ledges and reefs are numerous, making navigation difficult even for smaller crafts; and the process of silting up has made navigation all the more difficult. There are several points where the river could be forded, Bankot and Bagmandla being the most frequented. The other points are Shipola, Panderi, Nigodi and Mhapral and the villages opposite them in the Kolaba district. From the mouth of the river upstream the scenery improves a great deal, in that its hilis present a picturesque landscape. Further inland, the table-land features recede from the river banks, to develop broad belts of alluvial low land with interspersed patches of mangrove swamp. But as one goes upstream towards Mahad the banks become flat and uninteresting.

Vasishthi.

The Vasishthi running parallel to the Savitri has a course of about 30 miles and is the most important river of the district from the point of view of length and navigational facilities. Its source waters rise in the Tivra section of the Sahyadris. In its mountainous course, it develops a narrow and steep profile. On reaching the plain tract, it develops a meandering course. Here the river becomes tidal. It is at this point that the commercial town of Chiplun is situated. Below the island of Govalkot, the river widens in sweeping meanders and after a course of 25 miles through low mud banks and mangrove, it reaches the sea in the shape of a shallow estuary that is marked by promontories on either side. As with the Savitri the estuarine mouth on the Vasishthi has a sand-bar that reduces the navigational advantage of the river. On the southern headland of the estuary stands the old fort of Anjanwel, and on the north, the once famous port of Dabhol. Situated on a narrow strip of low ground between the creek and the neighbouring steep hill, the present appearance of Dabhol hardly suggests its former greatness. During stormy weather condition, Dabhol offers a better anchorage to the small sailing craft than Anjanwel, but all the same both these ports are essentially fair weather ports with a limited advantage.

Jagbudi.

The Jagbudi, the principal tributary of the Vasishthi on the north, rises near the Hatlot pass of the Sahyadris. In its first 12 miles, the stream runs almost from north to south, and there develops a sharp bend to flow westwards for the next 12 miles and again resumes its southward trend till it joins the Vasishthi. These sharp, almost right angled, bends of the river are suggestive of drainage intricacies of the Konkan coastlands. Where the river becomes tidal— about 12 miles upstream—is situated the local commercial and administrative centre of Khed. Several smaller tributaries are received by the Vasishthi on either bank, only some of the larger ones being tidal are useful for navigation. The passage in the smaller stream is obstructed by mud-banks and mangroves. The Vasishthi, however, is at any stage of the tide navigable for large sized craft as far as the village of Diva about eight miles below Govalkot, which is the landing place for Chiplun. Larger craft can work up on the tide of Govalkot, 28 miles from the mouth of the river, to unload the cargo directly in the local jetty or into smaller craft which carry it upstream to Chiplun. Smaller vessels can reach as far as Khed upstream the Jagbudi river. The triangular island of Govalkot formed by the two arms of the river is important both on account of its historic fort and landing facilities as well as the rich agricultural land outside the fort. Downstream, the course of the Vasishthi is again interrupted by several small islands of no human importance. Below Govalkot, the river can be forded at two main points between Taribunder and Dabhol, and between Maldoli and Hodkhad.

Shastri.

South of the Vasishthi river, the Shastri flows from the east to the west and drains a part of the district. It takes its source waters in the Sahyadris near the Prachitgad fort and has a total length of about 40 miles when, it meets the sea in an estuary, the adjoining promontory of which supports the Jayagad fort. The first 16 miles of the river belong to a steep mountainous tract. Where the river leaves this tract to enter the coast land is situated the taluka town of Sangameshwar. Below this town the river is joined by the tributary stream of Bav, and has a generally north-westerly trend right up to the sea. The river is tidal up to Sangameshwar. Of the several small tributary streams, the Bav is the more important. Rising in the Sahyadris near the Amba pass the Bav develops a fertile valley and joins the Shastri on the left bank about 20 miles upstream the main river. On the right bank of the Shastri, the Gadnadi is the main tributary. The estuary of the Shastri has a broad but shallow aspect. Though Jayagad is a good port for the smaller craft, the sand-bar across the Shastri mouth presents difficulties. The river is tidal up to Sangameshwar, but its navigability is severely limited by the shallow waters, and silted reaches. Similarly the Gadnadi and the Bav have a very limited navigational advantage. The Shastri can be forded at four important places between Tavasal and Laiegan, between Jambhari and Kudli, between Phangas and Dingne; and between Sangameshwar and Asurda. The Bav is usually fordable at Vandri and Parchuri.

Ratnagiri.

Twenty-five miles south of the Shastri lies the Ratnagiri river. Rising in the Amba pass, it has a course of about 40 miles. At its mouth this stream is narrow and has a sand-bar. On the north, lies the promontory on which stands the old fort of Ratnagiri. The mouth offers anchorage only to small craft which can go upstream up to about 12 miles with the tide. The river is crossed by ferries at two points.

Muchkundi.

The Muchkundi rises in the heights of Machal in the Sahyadrian range, near Prabhanavli, and flows parallel to the Ratnagiri, to its south, to empty its waters into the Purangad creek. It is navigable for about twelve miles upstream, and on its northern bank stands on a bluff the fort of Purangad.

Jaitapur.

South of the Muchkundi, the land is drained by the Jaitapur river which taking its source waters from the Anaskura tract of the Sahyadris, develops first a south-westerly course for nearly two-third of its length, and then takes a due westward turn to join the sea in the Jaitapur creek. Widway between the source and the mouth, stands on the north-bank the historical trading centre of Rajapur. The Jaitapur creek is protected by a promotory on its north. On this bluff stands the Yeshwantgad fort. The opening of the creek is narrow, but inside, the river broadens but and is navigable up to three miles off Rajapur for medium sized craft. The ferry at Jaitapur connects two points on the northern bank.

Vaghotan.

Immediately south of the Jaitapur creek lies another parallel flowing river which at its mouth is known as the Vijayadurg creek and 'upstream as the Vaghotan river. Rising in the Kajorda region of the Sahyadris, the river flows south eastwards for about 15 miles, where it becomes tidal. At this point is situated the old trading centre of Kharepatan. Below Kharepatan, the river rapidly widens and joins the sea in a wide estuary that is protected from the south by the rocky height of the Vijayadurg fort. This promontory gives a good protection to craft from the south-west monsoon and the wide estuary gives spacious room. The estuary is comparatively free from sand-bars, and so at the immediate entrance there is good depth for vessels of large size, but inside, it rapidly shoals to offer a depth of about twelve feet to the sailing craft. After rounding Vijayadurg, the channel turns south-east for about four miles almost parallel to the coast-line, and then gradually curves eastwards. At the bend of the river, a large back water runs south for about three miles to create the narrow peninsula of Bheria. The river is navigable for vessels of medium size up to the town of Vaghotan and for smaller sized craft up to Kharepatan which is 20 miles inland.

Deogad.

The Deogad river has a similar parallel flowing course of about thirty miles from the Shivgad pass to its mouth which is protected by the Deogad promontory from the south. The river is navigable only for a few miles and is comparatively unimportant from the economic point of view.

Achra.

The Achra is a small river in the sense that it has a few tributaries, though its length is about thirty miles. It rises near the Phonda Ghat. A prominent headland separates the estuary of this river from that of the Deogad river. The river is navigable only up to a few miles.

Kalavli.

The Kalavli rises in the Bhudargad heights of the Sahyadris, and on receiving the waters of the Gadnadi, takes a south-westerly course and joins the sea three miles north of Malvan. The estuary is influenced by a developing sand-bar from the north. The river is forded at two points and has a very limited navigability.

Karli.

This river is known as Sarambal in upper reaches and as Karli only near its mouth. It rises near Manohargad in the Sahyadris, and after a winding course of about fifty miles, joins the sea about eight miles south of Malvan. Sand-pits and shallow mouth have considerably reduced the importance of this river though it is navigable for about fourteen miles upstream up to Anav for medium sized vessels. There are some ferries across the river though during the monsoons fording is difficult at all points.

Terekhol.

The southern-most river of the district is known in its upper reaches as the Banda river and in the lower as the Terekhol. Rising in the environs of the Manohargad in the Sahyadris, the river flows south-west to meet the sea. As far as Banda, about fifteen miles from the sea, it is tidal and navigable to medium sized vessels, but larger craft cannot pass beyond Aronda which is three miles upstream from the estuary. Though the Terekhol can be forded at several points in the fair weather season, it becomes a formidable rush of waters during the monsoonal season. The river forms a boundary for some distance between the Ratnagiri District and the Goa territory.

Minor Creeks.

In addition to these main rivers, the district has numerous small creeks and back waters all along the coast line. The more important are the Kelshi creek (between Bankot and Suvarndurg), the Ada creek (two miles to the south of the Kelshi), the Palshey and Borya bays (between Vasishthi and the Shastri), the Ganapatipule, Nevre, Are and Kalbadevi, (just north of the Ratnagiri creek) and the Redi creek (in the southern extremity of the district). All these creeks afford anchorage to small craft in fair weather and have a local importance in trade and fisheries.

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