STANDARD OF LIVING

RURAL AREAS.

The standard of living of the people living in the rural, areas of Ratnagiri district does not present a very happy picture. An attempt is made to give a broad analysis of their standard of living which is based on a survey of 450 families from about 50 villages. The evaluation of the standard of living of the rural folk, however, is beset with some difficulties: Firstly, several transactions take place in the form of barter (direct exchange of commodities without the use of money) and their economic significance cannot be guaged fully. Secondly, persons depending upon agriculture supplement their income by following other related or allied occupations either within the village or in the neighbouring villages, while many families get regular monetary help from persons employed in cities. Against this background, a clear and satisfactory differentiation of occupations and economic classes is hardly possible.

The undermentioned classification is, however, calculated to differentiate the various occupational classes which can be grouped together in virtue of their economic position.

(1) Well-to-do cultivators.

(2) Medium cultivators.

(3) Tenant cultivators.

(4) Landless labourers.

(5) Village artisans.

(6) Miscellaneous groups.

WELL-TO-DO CULTIVATORS.

Big or well-to-do farmers form an upper strata of the rural society by virtue of its ownership of land together with the con- sequent control over labouring classes and its relatively higher income. Survey of twenty-three families in this group revealed the following facts.

Income.

Typical family of a big farmer comprised eight or nine members of whom three were minors. As the head of the family could afford to employ any amount of labour to work on the fields, there was seldom need for the members of his family to work on farms. Land, the chief source of income, yielded an average annual income of Rs. 11,500 while the income from subsidiary sources amounted to Rs. 594 per year. Besides land, each family generally owned two spacious houses and 10 to 11 heads of cattle comprising buffaloes, bulls, cows and calves.

In the field of education, this class was much advanced as compared to other sections, the percentage of literacy (excluding children below six) being as high as 71.6. Among the literates., males outnumbered females by a margin of nine per cent. Most of the literate persons received only primary education; nearly two fifths went in for secondary education while hardly one per cent. of them went in for higher education.

Expenditure.

The analysis of expenditure indicated that an average family had to spend annually almost the whole of its income or Rs. 2,000 over its normal requirements with the result that very few families were in a position to save.

Investment and Loans.

Out of 23 families surveyed only nine had savings aggregating Rs. 1,003 in the form of postal savings, bank deposits, etc. Very few families resorted to borrowing for the sake of marriage or medical expenses. Debts incurred by an average family did not exceed Rs. 345 per year which were borrowed mostly on personal security from money lenders, shop keepers, or in a few cases from relatives. Some of the loans were secured free of interest while others carried a rate of interest between four per cent. and six per cent.

The monthly expenditure of a family was about Rs. 138 of which Rs. 98.7 was on various items of food. Among food articles, expenditure on cereals and pulses was more than that on milk, ghee, etc. which were very often produced at home. Expenditure on major heads other than food was very limited and did not increase pari passu with the rise in income of the family. Especially all the families spent paltry sums over miscellaneous items such as cosmetics and entertainment. Only one family was found to possess a radio set while the other two had gramophones.

Household equipment.

The household equipment was sufficient to meet domestic requirements and often consisted of brass and copper utensils. The beddings consisted of mattresses, pillows, rugs and chaddars. Use of gold ornaments like necklaces, bangles, rings, nose-rings, etc. was very common. It is an index to status among the rural classes. Very few families owned furniture. All of them were found to possess necessary agricultural tools and implements like ploughs (generally two or three per family), seed drills, harrows, axes, spades, sickles, etc. Many of them owned bullock carts for the purpose of transportation of goods from field to house and from house to market.

MEDIUM CULTIVATORS.

The medium cultivator is a constituent of the usual middle class or the peasantry. His economic position places him between the wall-to-do farmer and the tenant cultivator. A typical middle class cultivator owns nine to ten acres of land, which, by virtue of its poor quality, fetches him a meagre income. Very often this income is supplemented by income from other avenues of employment.

A family in this group is usually composed of five to six members, and the percentage of earning members is higher in this group than in the first, the number of male earners on an average being 1.4 and that of female earners being 0.3. Boys and girls taking education in primary or secondary schools also help their parents in agricultural operations in spare time.

In the field of literacy, the class of medium cultivators is better off than those of tenant cultivators and landless labourers. The percentage of literacy in this class was found to be 59.2, the percentage for females being still lower. Surprisingly enough, the percentage of persons taking higher education is greater in this class than in any other.

Expenditure.

The expenditure side of the family budgets of this group of persons did not show marked variations from the expenditure pattern of the group of well-to-do farmers. This is attributable to the fact that a considerable part of the expenditure was absorbed by food articles. The expenditure on cereals and pulses was found to be Rs. 32, on vegetables Rs. 2.3, on milk Rs. 4.1, and on tea and coffee Rs. 3. Expenditure on clothing, ceremonies, guests and charity was, however, found to be less than that of the previous group.

Loans.

The family budget of persons in this group is more often than not unbalanced, the balance being restored either by borrowing or buying on credit. Of the 27 families surveyed from this group 14 were found to be indebted. Of these 14 families eight had borrowed for unproductive purposes such as marriage ceremony, sickness, etc., while three had borrowed partly for productive and partly for unproductive purposes. Only two families were found to have incurred loans for education and improvement of agriculture. The system of deferred payments was also found in some cases. The debts were obtained from relatives, co-operative societies and the Government (in the form of tagai). The rates of interest varied from 6 to 8 per cent.

Household equipment.

The household equipment of this group of families consisted of brass, copper and earthen utensils. The bedding equipment was comprised of blankets (ghongadi), chuddars and a mattress or two. Most of the families possessed a small quantity of old fashioned ornaments of gold, viz., bangles, putali (necklace), etc. Almost every family possessed agricultural implements like ploughs, axesy sickles, their value varying from Rs, 100 to Rs. 500 for an individual family.

TENANT CULTIVATORS.

The class of tenant cultivators stands just above the lowest rung of the agricultural ladder. The recent agricultural legislation has conferred upon them the right of occupancy of the land they cultivate and helped their emancipation from the old bonds of zamindari system. Efforts are also made to improve the economic condition of the cultivators by providing long-term finance, irrigation facilities, supply of seed and fixation of rent they have to pay to the landlord.

Income.

Survey of the 23 families revealed that the annual income of a family from this group hardly exceeds Rs. 850. Naturally this amount falls short of the normal requirements of a family of five to six units. Although one-third of the members of the family earn, (heir employment is of a seasonal nature. Hence, some of them seek temporary alternative employment in Bombay or the neighbouring towns. Most of the income was found to be spent on food articles and clothing. Pulses and cereals accounted for an expenditure of Rs. 40.7 per month, while the annual expenditure on clothing amounted to Rs. 96.2. The pattern of expenditure does not differ much from that of the group of medium cultivators.

Investment and Loans.

Saving was found to be a very rare occurrence. On the contrary, (of the 23 families surveyed) 15 families were found to be in debt, which was taken mainly from shop-keepers, relatives, money lenders and co-operative societies.

The standard of literacy in this group was found to be comparatively poor, the percentage of literates being only 37.1. The standard of literacy among females was considerably lower. It was found that there was not a single person in this group who had reached the stage of secondary education.

Household equipment.

The household equipment consisted of brass, copper, aluminium and earthen utensils, beddings consisting of rough chaddars and ghongadis (blankets). All of them were found to own agricultural implements such as axes, sickles, ploughs, shovels, etc.

LANDLESS LABOURERS.

Landless labourers, constitute a sizable portion of the rural economy. For the major part of the year they are in the grip of unemployment, want and misery. Some of them find alternative employment in Bombay in winter and summer.

Income.

From the 30 families surveyed from this group, it was found that on an average a family consisted of five members and that both males and females worked to earn livelihood, while young boys used to help the parents in their work. The annual income of a family amounting to Rs. 448, was hardly enough to meet the needs, with the result that about 18 families were found to have borrowed mainly for their subsistence.

Percentage of literacy in this group was very low, viz., 23.4. Literacy among the females was rarely found.

Expenditure.

Poverty does not permit them to spend on things other than the bare necessities of life. Food accounts for the largest expenditure. A typical family of a landless labourer was found to spend Rs. 31.1 oil clothing, Rs. 4.6 on medicines, and quite a low amount on other miscellaneous items.

Housing and Household equipment.

Housing conditions of these people are far from satisfactory; a thatched hut of straw or bamboo, very often exposed to rain waters, serves as a shelter. The household equipment consists of brass, copper, aluminium and earthen utensils; beddings consisting of worn out carpets chaddars, ghongadis; and agricultural implements like sickle, axe, shovel, etc.

VILLAGE. ARTISANS.

Village artisans form an important section of the village community embracing as it does all skilled and semi-skilled persons like tailors, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, shoe-makers, barbers, etc.

A typical family of a village artisan consists usually of six members of whom generally two persons earn for the family. The head of the family follows his hereditary occupation, while others help him in his work. Females also take up work which is not strenuous. Besides their main occupation, some families possess a strip of land or two.

Income.

The annual income of an artisan, viz., Rs. 600 to Rs. 800, falls short of the requirements. Nearly half of the families surveyed were found to be indebted. The debts were incurred for marriage or sickness.

Expenditure.

The expenditure pattern of an artisan's family differs only slightly from that of a medium cultivator. It was found to spend as much as Rs. 43.3 on food items of which cereals and pulses together accounted for Rs. 36.6, while expenditure on other items hardly amounted to Rs. 20 per month.

Each of the families surveyed was found to own a small house or a hut of straw and bamboo. The household equipment consisted of utensils, beddings, tools and implements required for their profession, while a few were found to have luxury articles like radio-sets and gramophone, and ornaments of gold and silver.

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