STANDARD OF LIVING

URBAN AREAS.

For the purpose of investigation a household was adopted as the unit of sampling. Taking average annual income of a family as the most convenient and suitable basis of classification, the families in the urban sector were grouped as under:

Group I.-Families with an average annual income of Rs. 3,000 and above.

Group II.-Families with an average annual income ranging from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 3,000.

Group III.-Families with an average annual income of Rs. 1,000 (or even less than that).

INCOME.

GROUP I.-This income group was composed of persons deriving their incomes from professions such as medicine, commerce or law. It was characterised by the excess of income over expenditure. The expenditure of families upon the articles of food remained practically constant even in the face of relatively higher incomes whereas that on items like education, entertainment and the like, which are an index to a better standard of living, absorbed a significant portion of their incomes. Out of 13 families belonging to this group, surveyed in Ratnagiri and Chiplun towns, a great majority consisted of four units [The recognition of a person of the age of 12 or above as a full adult unit for cereal consumption, and a person below that age-limit as half a unit has now been widely 'accepted. In this chapter the unit of membership of a family is computed accordingly on the same basis, a person of the age of 12 or above being equal to one, and one below 12 being equal to half a unit.] (three adults and two minors). Their estimated average monthly income amounted to Rs. 465 which, besides earnings from the main source (profession) included more often than not, income from household property.

Expenditure.

Scrutiny of expenditure of a family revealed following facts. Expenditure on food was the highest. Among the various items of food, each family spent per month as much as Rs. 45 over milk, ghee, etc. Cereals were next in order. However, the percentage increase in expenditure on cereals did not keep pace with that on all articles of food warranted by steadily rising incomes. In the non-food category, house rent and transport with Rs. 26 and Rs. 22 respectively were the major heads of expenditure. Expenditure on items like sugar, gur, tea, coffee, tobacco showed an increase with an increase in income of the family. One family spent a sum of Rs. 43 on them.

Clothing and Education.

The item of expenditure that constituted the major difference between this group and the rest was clothing. The standards of clothing differed widely having regard to factors like, decency, fashion, custom and usage. A family spent annually Rs. 465 (or one twelfth of its average annual income) on clothing. Expenditure on guests and charity accounted for Rs. 162 and Rs. 110 respectively. This group spent a large portion of its income on education, entertainment and similar heads of expenditure as compared to that of other groups. This speaks for its higher educational standard. Percentage of literates (above six years) in this group was as high as 98. Both males and females were equally literate. The percentage of those who received college education was 40. Monthly expenditure on education, travelling and entertainment amounted to Rs. 38, Rs. 22 and Rs. 7 respectively.

Investments and Loans.

As pointed out earlier, the family budgets of this group showed a surplus which was invested in National Savings Certificates, shares of joint stock companies, etc. or kept with banks in fixed deposit accounts. Surprisingly enough, cases of borrowing were not rare. Loans were raised from agencies like co-operative societies and banks. Funds were borrowed not for the purpose of making up the deficit but for purchasing shares or for investing them in other suitable avenues. On an average, the family borrowed Rs. 2,346 per year. In the course of the survey it was found that two or three families had, incurred debts aggregating Rs. 30,500 while others had incurred very small debts or no debts at all.

Housing.

Like expenditure on food and clothing, expenditure on housing has a significant bearing on the standard of living of a family. As compared to other two classes, this class was definitely better off in the matter of housing. Families very often owned houses whose average value was Rs. 18,615 excluding the value of plot viz. Rs. 1,900. Houses were constructed in modern style and were provided with sanitary facilities, electrical fittings, etc. Besides, they were well-ventilated. Families occupying rented premises were few.

Household equipment.

Household equipment of these families was superior to that of the other classes. The use of brass utensils was common. Bedding consisted of mattresses, blankets, rugs, pillows and chaddars. Some of these families possessed musical instruments and other means of entertainment.

Income.

GROUP II: This was composed of Government servants, small businessmen and shop-keepers, retailers and stationers, lecturers and teachers, tailors and laundrymen, drivers, conductors, etc. The survey covered 45 families in this group. Average family in this class did not differ in size from that of the 1st group and consisted of four units (three adults and two minors). However, the number of earning members in the families in this group was more as compared to that in those of the 1st group. Earning members belonged to miscellaneous occupations. Some of the families owned a few acres of land whose monetary contribution was negligible. The average income of the family in this group was Rs. 106.

Expenditure.

On the expenditure side, foodgrains, cereals and pulses claimed the largest share of the total expenditure on food, the allocation being as high as Rs. 40 in some cases. This was followed by milk and milk products accounting for Rs. 24 per month. In contrast to expenditure of families in the 1st group, the expenditure on vegetables, edible oils, spices, gur and sugar was lower. Travelling occasions were few and far between. An average family spent hardly a rupee on this head as against Rs. 22 spent by rich families. Items such as cosmetics and entertainment accounted for a smaller monthly expenditure of Rs. 7 and Rs. 3 respectively.

Education.

Literacy was as much marked in this group as in group I though the standards of literacy differed considerably. Among the literates, majority had received less education, such an incidence being highest among the females, the reason being that females could reach only up to the secondary stage whereas the males prosecuted their studies right up to the college level.

Housing.

In respect of housing, many families owned small houses of the value of Rs. 3,582 while others usually occupied three-room tenements. The number of rentier families was very small and the average rent received was low. But all the houses were not provided with amenities like adequate ventilation, electricity, tap-water connection and flush latrines.

Household equipment.

The household equipment consisted of brass and copper utensils enough to meet the domestic needs. The bedding consisted of one or two. mattresses, carpets, rugs and blankets (of indigenous wool known as kambalee). The cost of bedding varied between Rs. 50 and Rs. 75 Besides, each family was observed to own a set of tools and other accessories with which it had to work. Instances, where a family possessed musical instruments or other means of entertainment were rare.

GROUP III.-This group included in its fold a vast majority of poor families comprising persons who were either agricultural tenants, petty shop-keepers, unskilled or semi-skilled labourers, hawkers, shoemakers, barbers, tin-smiths, coolies, carpenters, cooks, etc. Very few had property of their own. Their housing conditions and dietary differed considerably from the other two groups described above.

Income.

On an average each family comprised three and a half units (two adults and three minors). Each family owned an acre of land mostly of inferior quality which afforded a family an annual income of Rs. 105. Barring families having a subsidiary source of income in agriculture, the remaining had no other source of earning except the main occupations which they followed. The annual income from the main occupation did not exceed Rs. 680 per family or household. On this basis, the average monthly income of a family ranged between Rs. 30 and Rs. 75.

Expenditure.

As regards expenditure, greater part of the income was absorbed in satisfying the urgent needs of existence viz. cereals and pulses. The average expenditure of a family on them amounted to Rs. 20.7. On other items of expenditure like milk, oils and spices, gur and sugar, vegetables, etc. an average family spent Rs. 9.9, Rs. 2.8, Rs. 2.4 and Rs. 1.7, respectively.

Loans.

As the families thus lived a bare existence and most of the income was consumed in satisfying the day-to-day wants, nothing could be spared for items such as cosmetics, recreation, entertainment, servants, etc. Most of the families in the group were found to have deficit budgets. To meet this deficit many families had to resort to borrowing. Of the 47 families surveyed, nearly 25 had incurred loans to the extent of Rs. 6,395. Most of these loans were taken from money-lenders, friends, relatives and co-operative societies. The borrowing was reported to either to balance their family budgets or to carry out repairs to their houses or to provide for absolute necessaries,

Education.

Such a class living from hand-to-mouth could not be expected to provide for education to their children. Only about half the number of adult persons (in the families surveyed) could be included in the category of literates. In the case of women this percentage of literacy was even lower. Among the literates most of the persons had taken only primary education while the percentage of persons who had received secondary education was as low as five or six.

Housing.

The housing conditions of families in this group were far from satisfactory. The houses, mostly groundfloor structures having walls of mud or sun-dried (kaccha) bricks and roofs of dry leaves or thatch, had poor ventilation. The poor persons ranking at the bottom of this group stayed in small huts with walls of reed roofs thatched with rice straw and grass. The household equipment was insufficient, often consisting of some brass and copper utensils. No wonder if they could not afford furniture or musical instruments and other means of entertainment.

Household equipment.

Their bedding comprised two or three mattresses, pillows, coarse rugs and carpets. Occasionally a family was found to have a bullock-cart or a cycle. Most of them, however, had a set of instruments and accessories required for their daily work. To conclude, persons in this class on account of their poor earnings have to put up with a hard struggle for existence and have to keep a very low standard of living.

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