GENERAL

MAIN PHYSICAL FEATURES

Relief and drainage.

Residual hill ranges and the intermediate valleys, all well-developed on a tableland surface, form the main element of landscape in the Satara district. On the west, it has the Sahyadrian scarp with its major peaks, usually flat topped, and intervening saddles. The Mahadeo Range, which is the next major well developed range;, begins as an off-shoot of the Sahyadries, in the north-western part of the district. Eastwards, it runs as a main range and sends off several minor ranges south-eastwards and southwards. The Sahyadrian range and its minor hill chains on the plateau surface, and the Mahadeo range and its minor ranges, enclose between them the major river svstems of Satara.

From the point of view of the peninsular drainage, the entire land of the district belongs to the larger drainage system of the Krishna river. In this district there are four distinct river basins: the Krishna draining the major portion to the south, the Yerla also draining to the south the mid-east portions, the Man draining the eastern parts to join the Bhima river outside the limits of the district, and the Nira draining the northern belt of the district.

Hills.

The Sahaydries.

The two major ranges, the Sahyadries and the Mahadeo, form, as mentioned above, the major hill complex of the district, and these and their several transverse members together with many isolated hill features and knolls give Satara its dominant relief forms.

The Sahyadrian system includes the main range of the Sahyadries which through its entire length of about sixty miles from north to south forms the western boundary of the district. Within Satara limits, the main range of Sahyadris from about eight miles north of Pratap-gad, passes south in an irregular line till it reaches the boundary of the Sangli district about fifteen miles south-west of Patan. In the range sixty miles within Satara limits the crest of the Sahyadries is crowned by several peaks of which two are the major forts of Pratapgad (3,543 ft.) and Makarandgad (4,054 ft.). Similarly, the main line of the Sahyadris, within Satara limits, develops several cols and saddles of which the more accessible ones have become major Ghat routes. Beginning from the north, these are the Fitz Gerald or the Ambinali pass in the north-west of the district: the Par pass about three miles south-west of the Fitz Gerald pass; the Hatlot pass about six miles south of the Par pass; the Amboli pass, about ten miles south of the Hatlot pass; The North Tivra pass about ten miles south of the Amboli pass; the Kumbharli pass about fifteen miles south of the North Tivra pass; and the Mala pass about eight miles south of the Kumbharli pass. Of these passes the Fitz Gerald and the Kumbharli allow major routes from the plateau to the Konkan while the Amboli. North Tivra, and Mala are minor routes, and the rest are footpaths.

Several leading spurs pass east and south-east from the Sahyadris. Beginning from the north, these spurs may be named the Kamalgad, Vairatgad, Hatgegad-Arle, Bamnoli-Gheradategad, and Bhairavgad-Kandur; the last two are large ranges each with three minor spurs. Kamalgad is a short spur which starts about five miles north of Mahableshwar and passes about ten miles east ending in the hill-fort of Kamalgad. It forms the water-parting between the Valki on the left or north and the Krishna on the right or south. The second is the Vairatgad spur up a branch of which the Wai Mahableshwar main road climbs, it leaves the Sahyadris in the region of the Mahahaleshwar plateau and stretches south-east about 20 miles ending a little beyond the hill-fort of Vairatgad. This spur forms the water-parting between the Krishna on the left or north-east and the Kudali, a feeder of the Krishna, on the right or south-west. It has one fort Vairatgad about six miles south-east of Wai. The third or Hatgegad-Arle spur starts like the Vairatgad spur from the Mahabaleshwar complex, and stretches south-east nearly parallel to the Vairatgad range to the north of Medha about thirty miles to Arle near the meeting of the Krishna and Vena or Yenna. It is the water-parting between the Kudali a feeder of the Krishna, on the left or north-east, and the Yenna on the right or south-west. This spur has no hill-fort. The fourth, the Bamnoli-Gheradategad, is the chief of the Sahyadri spurs. It starts from Malcolmpeth on the Mahabaleshwar plateau and for a distance of about forty miles runs south nearly parallel to the main line of the Sahyadries. It forms the water-parting between the Vena, a feeder of the Krishna, on the left or north-east and the Koyna. The range is as high and massive as the main crest of the Sahyadris. Besides by several small passes it is crossed by a good road from Medha and Bamnoli. In the extreme south is the fortified peak of Gheradategad. From the eastern slopes of the Bamnoli-Gheradategad range, three chief spurs stretch east and south-east across the plain. The first of these, the Satara spur, starts at Kelghar about three miles north-east of Bamnoli and about fifteen miles south-east of Maleolmpeth, and stretches about fourteen miles to Satara, and, from Satara about twelve miles south-east to Varna and Phatyapur near the meeting of the Urmodi and the Krishna. It forms the water-parting between the Vena on the left or north-east and the Urmodi on the right or south-west, both feeders of the Krishna. Its only fortified hill is Satara about the middle of the range. The second spur, the Kelvali -Sonapur spur, is short scattered and of irregular shape. It leaves the main range near Kelvali about eight miles south of Bamnoli, and, with many short side shoots, stretches about twelve miles south-east to Nagthana. It forms the water-parting between the Urmodi river on the left or north-east and the Tarli, also a feeder of the Krishna, on the south-west. Its only fort is Sajjangad or Parli on an outlying branch to the north of the main spur. The third or Jalu-Vasantgad spur starts from the Bamnoli-Gheradategad range about nine miles south of Kelvali and with several off-shoots passes about twelve miles south to near Patan; about two miles north-east of Patan it turns south-east, and stretches about fourteen miles to Vasantgad about four miles north-west of the confluence of the Koyna and the Krishna at Karad. During its twelve miles south the Jalu-Vasantgad spur forms the water-parting between the Tarli stream on the left or east, and the Kera, a feeder of the Koyna on the right or west. In its fourteen miles to the south-east the spur forms the water-parting between the Krishna and its feeder, the Mand on the left or northeast, and the Koyna on the right or south-west. The only fort on the spur is Vasantgad near its extreme south-east end. From the Bhairavgad-Kandur range which mostly belongs to the Sangli district, several spurs run north-east and east, and fill the south-west corner of the district with hills. Of these spurs there are three chief lines. Gunvantagad about five miles south-west of Patan, the water-parting between the Koyna on the left or north and the Morna on the right or south; the Kahir-Kirpa spur running east and separating the Morna on the left or north from the Kole or Vang river on the right or south; and the Kalgaon-Jakhinvadi spur running north-east to near Kapil about three miles south of Karad and separating the Kole river on the left or north-west from the Nandgaon stream on the right or south-east.

The Mahadeo.

The second chain of Satara hills is the Mahadeo range. In the north of the district the range emanates from the Sahyadrian complex from about ten miles north of Mahabaleshwar and stretches east and south-east across the whole breadth of the district. The trend of the range for the first thirty miles, to a little beyond the Khambatki pass through which runs the Satara-Poona road, is towards the east. About Vela, four miles east of the Khambatki pass, it turns south-east. Beyond Tadvala, the hills again stretch in an irregular line east-wards to the extreme east of the district at Kothla about twelve miles northeast of Dahivadi. Though its south-running spurs have many forts, the main crest of the Mahadeo range has only three forts, Ghera or Kelanja in the north-west about fourteen miles north-east of Mahabale-shwar, Tathvada or Santoshgad about twenty miles north-west of Dahivadi, and Varugad in the north-east about eleven miles north of Dahivadi. Besides many small saddles, the Mahadeo range is crossed by three important passes, the Khambatki pass on the Poona-Satara road about twenty-eight miles north of Satara, and the two breaks near Tadvala, about twelve miles south-east of Khambatki, through. which the Wai-Adarki and the old Satara-Poona roads run.

From the main range of the Mahadeo hills three principal spurs stretch south, the Chandan-Vandan spur in the west which runs about half across the district, and the Vardhangad and the Mahiman-gad spurs further east which stretch right across the district. The Chandan-Vandan spur is the water-parting between the Krishna valley on the west and the Vasna valley on the east. The spur starts from the Mahadeo hill at Harli about a mile and a half east of the Khambatki pass and about twelve miles north-east of Wai. It stretches south about twelve miles to the twin forts of Chandan and Vandan, and, from then, about ten miles further, to near the meeting of the Vasna and Krishna about three miles south-east of Sangam-Mahuli. The Vardhangad spur begins from Mol in Khatav about 16 miles east of the starting point of the Chandan-Vandan spur and passes south through the whole length of the district about fifty miles to the Krishna near the town of Kundal in Sangli district. It forms the water-parting between the Vasna, Vangna, and other direct feeders of the Krishna on the west and the streams that drain into the Yerla, a large tributary of the Krishna, on the east. The spur has two fortified hills Vardhangad in the north about eight miles east of Korsgaon, and Sadashivgad near Karad, about thirty miles south of Vardhangad. The third or Mahimangad spur begins from the Mahadeo hills about nine miles east of the starting point of the Vardhangad range and extends south-east to Khanapur in the Sangli district. It forms the water-parting between the valley of the Yerla, a tributary of the Krishna on the right or south-west, and the valley of the Man. a tributary of the Bhima on the left or north-east. It has the major fortified hill of Mahimangad about ten miles south of where the spur starts from the Mahadeo hills.

The tops both of the main Sahyadris and of the Mahadeo hills, especially in the north-western tracts of Wai, Jaoli and Patan, look like a succession of fortresses raised on a series of plateaus piled one over the other, the whole surmounted by a wall of rock. The top of Mahabaleshwar, the highest point in the district, is about 4,710 feet above the sea. From the high Deccan table-land on the east, the Sahyadris seem somewhat low and tame. But from the western edge of their crest great forms stand out from the Konkan with bold wild outlines and cliffs which in places have a sheer drop of over 3,000 feet. For about thirty miles after leaving the Sahyadris, the Mahadeo hills keep a height of about 4,000 feet above the sea and about 2,000 feet above the plain. The north face of the Mahadeo range falls sharply into the Nira valley, the distance from the crest of the range to the river being not more than ten or twelve miles, To the south the hills fall much more gently to the valley of the Krishna.

Hill Forts.

Within Satara limits there are several notable hills and hill-forts. The names of the major hills in the Khandala-Wai tract are, Baleghav. Dhamna, Harli. Kamalgad, Kenjalgad, Mandhardev, Panchgani, Pandavgad, Pipli, Sonjai. Vagdera, Vandan. Vairatgad and Eruli. Of these hills Sonjai, the lowest is 3.287 feet and Eruli, the highest, is 4.531 feet above the sea. One of them Panchgani is a health report, and five of them Kamalgad, Pandavgad, Vairatgad, Vandan. and Kenjalgad are hill forts; Kamalgad, 4,511 feet above the sea, stands alone, ten miles west of Wai, and has an ascent of about three miles. The sides are covered with shrubs and trees, and the top is Hat, and is fifty acres in area. It is approached by unfrequented foot-paths from Asgaon to the east, from Vasole to the north, and from Partavdi to the south. Inside is a hole which is said, to be the remains of a deep well sunk right through the rocky layer constituting the scarp and penetrating to the soil below which seems still to be full of water. Pandavgad, to the soil below which seems still to be full of water. Pandavgad, about 4,177 feet above the sea and three miles north of Wai, has an ascent of about a mile and a half, and is thinly covered with scrub. Its flat top has an area of only thirty acres, surrounded by an almost ruined wall with two gates. Inside, at a small ruined temple of Pandujai, a yearly fair or yatra is held. On the side are two or three water cisterns and a cave, and at the bottom of the hill are two more caves called Pandavkritya or the Pandavs' work. Vairatgad, 3,939 feet above the sea and six miles south-east of Wai, has an ascent of about a mile. The top has an area of about thirty acres. Inside the fort are five stone ponds, none of them more than forty feet in diameter, and outside is one cave pond. It is surrounded by a wall with two gates, one of which is approached by steps. Vandan, about 3,851 feet above the sea and ten miles south-east of Wai, is a flat-topped hill with an area of about seventy acres, and an ascent of a mile and a half The top, which has a mosque still in fair preservation, and a considerable Musalman bathing place with two roofed and walled tombs, is strengthened at the crests of ravines with two gates. There is an inscription in Persian characters over the gateway and within are several rooms for the accommodation of the guard. Kenjalgad, 4,268 feet above the sea and eleven miles north-west of Wai, is a flat-topped hill with an area of about fifty acres and an ascent of about two miles. The top, which has three large water tanks of about forty feet square and six small ones and one or two ruined temples, is surrounded by a ruined wall with a gate approached by a flight of about a hundred steps. The village of Ghera-Kenjala on the top has about 100 people.

Jaoli.

The principal heights in Jaoli—Mahabaleshwar tract are Mahabaleshwar, Makrandgad, Pratapgad, and Vasota. Of these, Mahabaleshwar, 4,710 feet above the sea, is a health resort and the other three are hill forts. Makrandgad, about 4,054 feet above the sea and seven miles south-west of Malcolmpeth. the Mahabaleshwar Market, is commonly known as the Saddleback. The top is small and uneven. A few shrine-servants and husbandmen live on the top, which has a pond, a spring, and a temple of Mallikarjun. Pratapgad hill, as the crow flies is four or five miles west of Malcolmpeth. It is 3,543 feet above the sea and stands prominently with steep grass and scrub covered sides, and is a place of great natural strength. It can be climbed either from Vada or Peth Par, but has only one gate. A motorable road is now constructed to cover the major part of the ascent. The top plateau which is about half a mile long, is flat and is surrounded by an inner and an outer line of walls each with one gate. The fort, having glorious association with the founder of the Maratha Empire is still in fair repair. The citadel has an area of 300 by 400 yards. About seventy people, chiefly pujaris or shrine servants, live on the hill top which has some reservoirs and two large temples, one dedicated to Bhavani and the other to Kedareshvar. With the recent installation of a fine equestrian statue of Shivaji Maharaj which offers a landmark on the skyline, the fort has become a place of pilgrimage to the people of Maharashtra. The tomb of the Bijapur general, Afzal Khan who died at the hands of Shivaji in 1659. is also shown at the base of the main hill top. Vasota is a flat-topped hill on the main range of the Sahyadries, about 16 miles south of Malcolmpeth. It is climbed by a steep foot-path about a mile and a half long with steps at the top. The top, which is surrounded by a wall, contains the remains of a mansion, a small temple, and two reservoirs.

Satara.

The main hill features in the Satara tract are Satara fort or Ajinkyatara. Yavteshvar. Parli fort or Sajjangad. Petova, Chatai, Pateshvar and Shulpani, varying from 3.000 feet to 4,000 feet above the sea. Satara and Parli are fortified. The Satara hill, about 3,307 feet above the sea and 1,200 feet above the plain, stands immediately over the town of Satara. The hill is climbed by a path about one mile long. The fort includes a flat hill-top about 1,200 yards by 400. It is surrounded by a wall with an entrance in the north-west, and a second blocked entrance in the south-east. The only buildings on the top are two bungalows and a few temples and small reservoirs. Two low necks join it to the spur. The sides are sleep and bare with a little scrub, and. except at the main gale, the top is surrounded by an unbroken wall of rock. The Parli or Sajjan Fort, about 3,000 feet above the sea, stands alone about seven miles south-west of Satara. Tt is steep and may he climbed by three footpaths, all of which lead to the same point of entrance. The flat top, which is about 600 yards by 250, is surrounded by a wall in fair order with an inner and an outer gate both bearing inscriptions. The fort is famous for the foot-prints of Ramdas Swami, the spiritual guide of Shivaji Maharaj. The foot-prints are visited every Thursday by a number of pilgrims, and a great fair or yatra is held in honour of Kamdas Swami on the ninth of the dark half of Magh in January-February. Besides the foot-prints, the top contains several temples, two mosques with Persian inscriptions, five water reservoirs, and a sizable population.

Koregaon.

The five Koregaon hills, Harneshvar, Chavaneshvar, Jaranda, Nandgiri, and Chandan, vary from 3,500 to 4,000 feet above the sea, Three are hill forts of little importance, Nandgiri about twelve miles north-east, Chandan about fifteen miles north, and Jaranda about eight miles east of Satara. All are surrounded by walls, each with one entrance. Nandgiri has a plateau about 500 yards long and 300 broad, and the top of Chandan is 1,000 feet by 800. These have no special temples or buildings but have one or more reservoirs. The slopes are bare and steep and are climbed by difficult footpaths.

Patan.

Of the five Patan hills, Chandli, Dategad, Gunvantgad, Bhairavgad, and Jangli-Jaygad, all except the first are fortified. Chandli, about six miles south of Patan, is of an irregular sugar-loaf shape and is half-cut from the rest of the ridge by a depression or pass. Except for a few teak trees the hill sides are bare. Dategad is a flat-topped eminence at the southern end of a range of hills in the west of Patan. The sides are bare and rocky. The ascent, which is some three miles from Patan, though steep is fairly easy. Gunvantgad ov Morgiri, a striking hill from many points on the Sahyadris, looks like a lion crouching with its head to the south-east. The ascent is easy, not more than half a mile from the village of Morgiri. The top has an area of about 200 yards by 50. The fort of Jangli-Jaygad about six miles north-west of Helvak, lies on a spur projecting from the main Sahyadrian chain into Konkan.

Karad.

The four Karad hills are, Agashiv, Pal, Sadashivgad, and Vasantgad, of which the Sadashivgad and Vasantgad are fortified. Agashiv, standing about 1,200 feet above the plain, has a pointed top, and is a prominent object about four miles south-west of Karad. The sides are steep and scantily covered with scrub. On the south-east of the hill is a group of Buddhist caves. Pal stands alone about two miles south-east of the village of that name. It is round-topped and rises about 100 feet from the plain. On the top is a small temple. The sides are not steep and in many parts are under tillage. Sadashivgad, a hill fort built by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stands about three miles east of Karad. It is a round-topped hill at the western wall of a spur which juts out from the Vardhangad range on the east. The sides are bare and rocky, easily climbed by a path about a mile long. The top which is about 400 yards by 200, is surrounded by a ruined wall. Vasantgad, about four miles north-west of Karad, a prominent object from both the Karad-Satara and the Karad-Kum-bharli roads, is a place of great strength. A footpath leads from Talbid to the east of the fort, and the old gun road from Khodshi about two miles to the south-east. On the top are two gateways and some temples and other buildings.

Man.

Of the major Man hills, Varugad, Khokada, Shikhar-Shingnapur, Tathvada, Jire-Padhar, Kulakjai, and Mahimangad, three, Varugad. Tathvada and Mahimangad are fortified. Varugad, about twelve miles north-west of Dahivadi, rises cone-shaped from the main spur. From the north the ascent is difficult and about a mile long; from the south the plateau leads to the base of the cone and the ascent is not more than 250 feet. It has a grassy top which is about a mile long by a mile broad and is fortified along the crests of the ravines by a ruined wall with five gateways. On the top stands the village of Varugad with an old temple of Bahiroba and with five hamlets. Khokada, fifteen miles north-west of Dahivadi, is flat-topped, rugged, and bare, and has one spring. On the top is the village of Khokada mostly of Kunbi husbandmen who raise crop of millets, wheat, and gram. Shikhar-Shingnapur, 13 miles north-east of Dahivadi and 3,049 feet above the sea is flat-topped, rugged, and partly covered with grass and trees. On the top are the village of Shingnapur, and a temple of Mahadeo. Tathvada, about, twenty miles north-west of Dahivadi, is rugged and partly covered with shrub and grass. The top, which is about a quarter of a mile long and broad, is fortified along the crests of ravines by a partly ruined wall with one gateway. On the top are a paved apartment, a reservoir, a well, and a temple. jire-Padhar, ten miles south-east of Dahivadi and 3,138 feet above the sea, is flat-topped, rugged, and covered with shrub and grass. On the hill top are two hamlets of Kunbis and shepherds. Kulakjai, eleven miles north-west of Dahivadi, is flat-topped, rugged, and covered with shrubs and grass. It has two springs, and the village of Kulakjai and two hamlets of husbandmen and shepherds. The Tita, Bel, and Vakjai passes go close by the hill. Mahimangad hill, 3,219 feet above the sea and five miles west of Dahivadi, is bare and flat-topped with rocky sides. It has an easy ascent and is joined to a spur of the Mahadeo range. The top is grassy and about 900 feet long from east to west and 600 feet broad from north to south. It is partly fortified by a ruined wall with one gateway. It contains two dry reservoirs and an old temple of Maruti.

Khatav.

Of the four Khatav hills, Solaknath, Bhapshah, Vardhangad, and Bhushangad, two, Vardhangad and Bhushangad are fortified. Solaknath, eighteen miles north of Vaduj, the source of the Yerla river, rises 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the plain. The top is pointed, and the sides are steep and bare, without trees or tillage. Bhapshah, four miles south-west of Vaduj, is a pointed hill with steep bare sides. Vardhangad, 3,502 feet above the sea and fourteen miles west of Vaduj, is round-topped and easy of ascent, and is a part of a spur of the Mahadeo range. The top, which is about 300 yards long by 200 broad, is surrounded by a stone wall with one entrance. The wall is entire towards the east and south and is ruined towards the north and west. The Satara-Pandharpur road passes by the south of the hill which has a grassy top with four wells, four reservoirs, and an old temple. Bhushangad stands alone, eleven miles southwest of Vaduj, steep, bare, and flat-topped. The top, which is about 200 yards long by 200 yards broad, is surrounded by a ruined stone wall with one entrance. The hill, which has a dry spring and no village either on the top or the sides, has two old temples on the top, one to a goddess and the other to Maruti.

Rivers.

Within Satara limits there are four distinct river drainage areas; the Nira in the entire northern belt, the Man in the south-east and the Yerla and the Krishna in the south. The narrow belt beyond the Mahadeo hills is drained north into the Nira which flows east into the Bhima, and the eastern part of the district beyond the Mahimangad range is drained south-east along the Man which afterwards flows east and north-east to join the Bhima.

Krishna.

The Krishna is one of the three great sacred rivers of Southern India. Like the Godavari and Kaveri, it flows across almost the entire breadth of the peninsula from west to cast and flows into, the Bay of Bengal. In length it is less than the Godavari, but its drainage area, including the drainage of its two great tributaries, the Bhima and Tungbhadra, is larger than that of either the Godavari or the Kaveri. Its length is about 800 miles and its drainage area is about 94,500 square miles. Of its 800 miles, about 110 lie within Satara limits. The Krishna rises on the eastern brow of the Mahabaleshwar plateau four miles west of the village of for in the extreme west of Wai. The source of the river is about 4,500 feet above the sea in 18° 1' north latitude and 73° 41' east longitude. On the plateau of the Mahabaleshwar hill near the source of the river stands an ancient temple of Mahadeo. Inside the temple is a small reservoir into which a stream pours out of a stone Gomukh. This is the traditional source of the river which Hindus lovingly call Krishnabai the Lady Krishna". Number of pilgrims crowd to the spot which is embowered in trees and flowering shrubs. From its source the Krishna runs east for about fifteen miles till it reaches the town of Wai. It receives the Kudali, from the right about two miles south of Panchvad in South Wai. After meeting the Kudali, the river continues to run south through the Satara Sub-Division by Nimb and Vaduth, and after fifteen miles receives the Vena on the right near Mahuli, about three miles east of Satara. As the confluence of the Krishna and Yenna, Mahuli is a sacred spot. A fair is held five times in the year, once in Kartik, October-November, in Chaitra, March-April, and in Ashadh, June-July, and twice in Shravan. July-August. Alter meeting the Vena, the Krishna curves to the south-east and separates Satara Sub-Division from Koregaon tor about ten miles till it reaches the border of Karad. In Koregaon, after a course of forty miles, about a mile east of Mangalpur, the Krishna receives the Vasna from the left, and after a course of about fifty-five miles in the extreme south of the Satara Sub-Division, about two miles south-west or Vanegaon. it receives the Urmodi from the right. In Karad the river runs nearly south, it receives from the right, two tributaries, the Tarli near Umbraj after a course of about sixty-five miles and the Koyna near Karad after a course of about seventy-five miles. Below Karad, it flows for about 30 miles and then enters the limits of the Sangli district. Within Satara limits the Krishna is unfit for navigation. The channel is too rocky and the stream too rapid to allow even of small local craft. The banks are twenty to thirty feet high and generally sloping, earthy and broken. The river bed, though in parts rocky, as a rule is sandy. In Wai and Satara in the north-west except that melons are grown, in its bed, the water of the Krishna is being increasingly used for irrigation. In Karad, crops of sugarcane, groundnut, chillies, and wheat are raised by watering the soil from recently made canals. During the fair season the Krishna is everywhere easily forded, but during the rains there is considerable body of water, and a bridge has been thrown over the Krishna at Mahuli, three miles east of Satara, at Dhamner in the South of Koregaon, at Umbraj, in Karad. Within Satara limits the Krishna is bridged at Bhuinj on the Poona-Bangalore road, at Wai on the Poona-Mahabaleshwar road, and at Vaduth on the old Poona road, and at Karad to connect the town with the railway station on the east.

Kudali.

The Kudali, a small feeder of the Krishna in the north, rises near Kedamb in Jaoli. and after a south-easterly course of about sixteen miles through Jaoli and Wai. flanked by the Vairatgad range on the left or north and the Hatgegad-Arle range on the right or south, joins the Krishna from the right about two miles south of Panchvad in Wai.

The Vena or Yenna one of the Krishna's chief feeders, rises on the Mahabaleshwar plateau and falls into the Yenna valley below the Lingmala plantation, on the east point of the Mahabaleshwar hills about three miles cast of Malcolmpeth. It flows between the Hatgegad-Arle range on the left or north and the Satara range on the right or south, and after a south-easterly course of about forty-miles through Jaoli and Satara, it joins the Krishna at Mahuli about three miles east of Satara. In the hot season the stream thins down and the water stands in pools. It is crossed by no ferries. Besides a foot-bridge at Medha in Jaoli, it has four road bridges, one on the Poona-Bangalore road at Varya, three miles north of Satara, two on the Satara-Malcolmpeth road at Kanhera eight miles and at Kelghar twenty miles north-west of Satara, and one on the old Poona road at Vadha-Kheda, three miles north-east of Satara.

Urmodi

The Urmodi. a small feeder of the Krishna, rises near Kas in Jaoli. It passes south-east along a valley flanked by the Satara range-on the left or north and the Kalvali-Sonapur range on the right or south. After a south-easterly course of about twenty miles, mostly through Satara, it joins the Krishna about two miles south-west of Venegaon in the extreme south of the Satara Sub-Division. The banks of the Urmodi arc high and steep. The flow of water ceases in the hot season. There is no ferry, and only one bridge on the Poona-Kolhapur road at Latna, nine miles south of Satara.

Tarli.

The Tarli, a small feeder of the Krishna, rises in the north-west of Patan about ten miles above the village of Tarli. It flows south-east along a valley flanked by the Kalvali-Sonapur range on the left or north-east and the Jalu-Vasantgad range on the right or south-west. After a south-easterly course of about twenty-two miles through Patau and Karad. it joins the Krishna from the right at Umbraj in Karad.

Koyna.

The Koyna, the largest of the Satara feeders of the Krishna, rises on the west side of the Mahabaleshwar plateau near Elphinstone Point in 17° 58' north latitude and 73" 43' east longitude. Of its course of eighty miles within Satara limits, during the first forty it runs nearly south, and during the next forty it runs nearly east. During its forty miles to the south the Koyna flows along a beautiful valley' with the main line of the Sahyadris on the right and on the left the Bamnoli-Gheradategad branch of the Sahyadris which runs parallel to the main line at an equal height. In Jaoli the river passes by Bamnoli and Tambi and receives the Solshi from tut-left about three miles north of Bamnoli and the Kandati from the right about two miles south of Bamnoli. At Helvak in Patan, after a course of forty miles, the river suddenly turns east, and, after a further course of forty miles flowing by the town of Patan, where it receives the Kera from the north, and on receiving down stream the waters of Morna and Vang from the south it falls into the Krishna at Karad. In the first forty miles the Koyna is seldom more than 100 feet broad; but in the last forty miles the bed is 300 to 500 feet wide. Especially in the first forty miles the banks are broken and muddy and the bed is of gravel.

To-day however the Koyna has become, probably the most important river in Maharashtra on account of the Hydro-Electricity Project that is being developed near Helvak.

Vasna.

The Vasna, a small left bank feeder of the Krishna, rises in the Mahadeo range near Solshi in the north of Koregaon. It flows south along a valley flanked by the Chandan-Vandan range on the right or west and by the Vardhangad range on the left or east. It runs south for about twenty miles, and from the left, joins the Krishna about a mile east of Mangalpur in Koregaon.

Yerla.

The Yerla, the largest of the left bank or northern feeders of the Krishna, rises in Solaknath hill in the extreme north of Khatav. It flows along a valley flanked by the Vardhangad range on the right or west, and by the Mahimangad range on the left or east. It runs south for about seventy-five miles through Khatav in this district and through Khanapur and Tasgaon. In Khatav it passes by Lalgun, Khatav, Vaduj, and Nimsod. After a south-westerly course of about seventy-five miles the Yerla falls into the Krishna within Sangli limits about six miles south of Bhilavdi. Its bed is sandy, and its banks are sloping, earthy and muddy. The stream holds water throughout the year and crops of sugarcane, groundnut, wheat, potatoes, and onions are raised by bhudkis or wells sunk near the banks.

Nira.

Of the Bhima drainage, the two chief Satara representatives are the Nira in the north and the Man in the north-east. The Nira which separates Satara from Poona in the north, rises on the Sahyadri range within the lands of the Bhor taluka of the Poona district. From its sources in Bhor the river runs east to the north of the talukas of Wai and Khandala and Phaltan. After leaving Phaltan, it runs north of Malsiras in Sholapur and falls into the Bhima about five miles east of Tambve in the extreme north-east of Malsiras. The Nira is bridged on the Poona-Kolhapur highway at Shirwal in the Khandala taluka. The river has acquired great economic importance on account of the Bhatgar dam (Poona district) and the newly constructed Vir dam, both of which support an extensive net-work of canals for irrigation.

Manganga.

The Manganga, a tributary of the Bhima, rises in the Tita hill in the north-east of Man. Of a total length of about 100 miles, about forty lie in Man within Satara limits. In Man the river runs southeast by Malvadi, Andhli, Dahivadi, and Mhasvad. Beyond Satara limits the Manganga continues to run south-east through Atpadi, and from Atpadi it turns north-east through. Sangola and Pandharpur in Sholapur, and falls into the Bhima at Sarkoli about ten miles south-east of Pandharpur. During the rains within the Man sub division the water of the Manganga runs two to six feet deep. In the fair season it is about two feet deep in some places and almost dry in others. The bed is sandy and the banks highly eroded. In some parts near the river banks crops of sugarcane, groundnut, wheat, sweet potatoes, and onions are raised by pats or fair-weather channels.

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