INDUSTRIES

section ii-COTTAGE INDUSTRIES

Almost all cottage industries which are developed in the district are old and hereditary. Persons engaged inherit them from generation to generation. Among these industries cotton and wool weaving, carpentry'; black, copper and gold smithies, basket making, pottery, rope-making, gul making, etc., are important. During the last century these industries were carried out by hand processes and no motive power was used in them. The impact of the West has caused a gradual change in the technique of their production. Throw shuttle loom which was commonly used in cotton weaving has now been replaced by an automatic loom. Carpenters, black and copper smiths use varieties of improved tools and implements so as to get more and better output. Improvement in the technique of leather working and tanning have yielded different kinds of leather goods. Similar improvement in the technique of pottery and other industries can also be seen. Recently gul making industry has received a set back due to the expansion of sugar industry in the district, as most of the sugarcane cultivated in the district is being diverted towards sugar manufacturing.

Prior to 1900 caste was the; basis of determining the occupation to be followed by a particular person. Salis and Kostis were obliged to follow cotton weaving, Sutars carpentry. Lobars blacksmithy, Kumbhars pottery and Rangaris dyeing and bleaching. Under the British regime convention of following a specific occupation by a particular' person became loose as education spread wider and wider. To-day, persons irrespective of caste and creed are to be found in all occupations. Persons other than carpenters follow Carpentry. as the means of their livelihood. Brickmaking, cotton weaving, lime burning, leather-work, etc. arc followed by persons irrespective of their caste and creed, though the hereditary influence still persists,

The employment in different industries like carpentry, basket making black and copper smithies, cotton and wool weaving, rope-making, leather-working etc., can be seen in the table given in the introduction of the chapter. The table contains figures for both Satara and Sangli districts for the years 1911, 1921 and 1931. Census figures of 1951 pertain to Satara only.

FOREST INDUSTRIES.

There are a few forest industries like beekeeping, charcoal manufacturing, collection of shikekai and hirda and walking-stick making followed at Mahabaleshwar, out of which the first two are important. Beekeeping can be pursued in spare time without much labour at a place where there is ample vegetation. Perennial flora from which honey can be sucked is available in abundance in the Mahabaleshwar forests in which bees fly about two furlongs from their hives and collect honey. Two units are engaged in beekeeping at Mahabaleshwar out of which one is run by Government. About 4.500 beehives are distributed among the people in the surrounding area of Mahabaleshwar and over 45,000 lbs. of honey of 15 different varieties valued at Rs. 57,000 are annually collected and marketed to places like Bombay and Poona.

The other forest industry located at Mahabaleshwar is charcoal making. Forest coupes are purchased by forest labourers' societies which cut unwanted wood, and manufacture charcoal. In 1956-57 there were six such societies, one each at Dhebewadi, Helwak Kumbharoshi, Mahabaleshwar, Ural and Wai. In addition to charcoal manufacturing the societies at Helwak and Kumbharosh collected hirda, shikekai, and apta leaves valued at Rs. 7,000 in the same year. The unwanted trees from the coupe are cut in small sizes and are arranged in a parabolic type of furnace closed from all sides with mud and its top with hay and mud. The furnaces are of two different sizes, viz., 40' X 40' and 20' X 20'. It is set on fire from the bottom where arrangement is made for such purpose These two furnaces char five and two tons of wood respectively a a time in ten days.

The industry functions in winter and summer and yields about 200 tons of charcoal annually.

Societies have not to bear any cost for producing charcoal except wages paid to labourers for cutting wood and arranging furnace Each man is paid Rs. 1.50 nP. and a woman 50 nP. per day The entire charcoal output is purchased by Government at Rs. 61 per ton. Most of the output is sent to Panchgani and about 20 per cent. is sold in Mahabaleshwar.

The six societies with a membership of 625 had Rs. 6,826 at share capital and total turnover of Rs. 3,43,241 in 1956-57.

Making of walking-sticks is another cottage industry found at Mahabaleshwar. There were ten such establishments making sticks and employing about 40 persons in 1960. The sticks are made of lokhandi or chimath or apti wood which is available in abundance in the Mahabaleshwar forests. They are dried for about a week and baked and are given shape as required. Many a time designs are carved on their handles. The industry is seasonal and works for about three months in a year. In the off season these workers take to some other employment. In the brisk season from January to May their wages vary from Rs. 2 to Rs. 3 per day.

The sticks are sold locally as well as sent to Bombay. The price of each stick at Mahabaleshwar varies from annas twelve to Rs. 2.75 nP.

Basket Making.

Basket making is a hereditary industry of Buruds who number about 800. They make supas, topalis, duradis, rovlis and karandis for stocking fruits and eggs. The industry is located in Mahabaleshwar, Patan and Satara talukas. In Satara town there are about 35 Burud families who make these articles. Besides them Kaikadis make kangolis and tattis from ghaneri bush.

Bamboos which grow in Mahabaleshwar and Helwak ranges and ghaneri bushes form the main raw materials. The best variety of bamboos is sold at Rs. 40 to Rs. 50 per 100, medium variety at Rs. 30 to Rs. 40 per 100 and inferior variety at Rs. 30 per 100. Bamboo strips are taken out with a koyata which costs Rs. 5 and baskets are made with the help of knife. No other tools are used in the industry. Men take out bamboo strips and women make the bamboo articles.

The cost of producing the following articles and their selling prices are as follows: —

The workers work throughout the day in all seasons and earn about one rupee or Rs. 1½ each per day. The industry does not require substantial amount of capital. To start with Rs. 15 are sufficient in the initial stages. As the establishment is expanded more capital is required for stocking raw materials.

The market for the products is generally local. No co-operative society was organised in the industry till 1958-59.

Tanning.

Tanning industry engages about 1,000 artisans. It is followed by dhors and chambhars who are hereditary artisans. Before 1950. centres where the industry was located were Dahiwadi. Condawle, Karad, Mhaswad. Mardi Pal, Satara and Wai.

After the conversion of Mahars to neo Buddhism who have stopped, flaying dead animals and supplying raw hides to tanners, the industry has suffered considerably. Satara and Wai are now the only important centres where the industry is concentrated. In other villages there are one or two dhor families who do this work. The industry is managed independently by Dhor families who purchase raw hides from local Mahars or bring them from outside.

Raw hides, lime and some chemicals like potassium dichromate constitute the main raw materials. Wet and raw hides are brought from Bombay and Poona at Rs. 19-20 per Bengali maund as local supply is inadequate to meet the requirements. In rural areas tanners purchase raw hides from local Mahars or Mangs whose hereditary occupation is to collect dead bodies of animals and supply hides to tanners after removing flesh and bones. Hirda (myrobalan) and babul bark, tarvad bark are used in this process. These articles are available locally.

Tools and implements.—Two or three lime pits, tanning pits, washing tanks and tools like wooden mallets, rapis, aria and few tubes, barrels etc., are the tools and equipment used in this process. Generally each family has a set of tools worth Rs. 500.

Production.—One family of three members tans 20 pieces of buffalo hides weighing about 1,000 lbs. a month. The cost of tanning 20 hides including charges for raw hides, hirda, babul bark, lime, fibre for stitching, wages, etc., is about Rs. 803.

Process of tanning.—These artisans follow a back tanning process, There is no difference between this method and the method which is followed at Kolhapur. The hide is macerated in lime water to separate the hair, the fat and the fleshy parts from it. After the hide is well soaked, the hair is scrapped with a scraper and the fat and fleshy parts are removed with a knife (rapi). It is then washed and soaked for nearly three days in a light solution of babul bark or tarvad bark and hirda water. To have a thorough tanned hide the process of soaking is repeated thrice. The hide is then tied into a bag and hung up with a stronger solution of babul bark and hirda water, ft is left in such a state for seven days. On the eighth day it is washed and again dried. It is then ready for sale.

The market for these goods is generally Bombay. These artisans arc exploited by middle men to the utmost and do not receive adequate payment for the work they do.

Tanning is a full-time work. Tanners work from morning till evening with the help of their families. Generally no outside labour is employed in this process. But in a centre like Satara a few artisans are employed on daily wages of Rs. 2 each. Most of these artisans are under debt as they cannot make both the ends meet.

An artisan on an average requires Rs. 1,500 to 2,000 as working capital. Middle-men generally advance this amount and recover the same from the tanned hides they purchase from the artisan.

There were three tanners' co-operative societies with 103 members and Rs. 3,523 as share capital in 1957-58. They did not undertake any activities till then. There is one tanning centre at Satara run by the Department of Cottage Industries. It receives raw hides from Bombay and from peripatetic school at Wai. The school imparts training to students from the Dhor community.

Government have established a tanning centre at Satara in 1957 with an object to produce tanned leather by pit tanning method which yields better and durable tanned leather in minimum time, Tanned leather produced at the centre is sold to the leather workers' co-operative society.

The industry' is suffering from a strong set-back as it cannot compete with big leather-working concerns who can sell their products at comparatively cheaper prices.

Blacksmithy.

It is a common calling found all over the district. In each village there are one or two Lohar families who produce and repair agriecutural implements and domestic articles like spades, pick-axes, axes, furrows, sickles, hoes, axles, flat pans (tavas), frying pans (kadhais) and prongs (sandshis). In 1951, 1041 persons were having black-smithy as a principal means of livelihood in the district. There were 149 establishments engaging 240 persons. Karad, Koregaon, Satara and Wai are important centres of blacksmithy.

Iron and steel are brought at Poona and Sangli as raw materials. Due to short supply of the metal sheets the artisans purchase them at a price higher than the controlled price. Iron plate weighing 18 seers is required for a band, 35 seers for an axle of cart. In rural areas necessary metal is supplied to them when an order is placed for an implement. They do such type of work on piece rates, and usually charge a rupee for producing an axe or a sickle, Rs. 10 for producing an angle, Rs. 5 for producing a chair and Rs. 4 for fixing a band on a wheel. An artisan does the work worth Rs. 5 in a day. His work is usually brisk during summer while during rainy season he takes to farm labour.

Tools required are anvil (airan), sledge-hammer (ghan), hammer (hatoda), pincers (sandshi) bellows (bhata), etc. The whole set costs about Rs. 200. Each artisan usually possesses the whole set.

The artisans are very poor. Many a time they move from place to place in search of employment. Capital required is borrowed at a higher rate of interest.

Leather-Work.

Leather-work is a common industry followed by Mochis or chambhars, who number 2,700. In 1951, there were 368 leather-working establishments engaging about 511 persons. Satara, Wai, Phaltan, Mahabaleshwar, Karad, Koregaon and Khed are few important centres. The main leather products are footwears, shoes, chappals and sandles. Formerly the artisans were engaged on baluta system, which is now fast disappearing. Leather goods are sold directly on cash payment.

Tanned leather or rubber for soles, dyed and fancy leather for uppers, nails, polishes, etc., constitute raw materials for the industry. Sole leather is brought from Kolhapur or purchased from local market and upper leather from Bombay, Calcutta, Kanpur and Madras. The prices of leather were as follows: —

Tools which are most commonly used are ari, chisel, iron spike, hammer, wooden blocks, flat stone, pakkad, etc. A set of such tools including a new sewing machine costs Rs. 800 and without a sewing machine about Rs. 100.

Production : Chappal is the main product while shoes and sandles are also produced in urban areas. Shoes produced at Mahabaleshwar are popular in Bombay. The cost of production of a chappal is about Rs. 4.80 nP. which is sold at Rs. 5 per pair. The market for the products is generally local. A small percentage of the produce is sent to towns and cities like Poona and Bombay.

Leather-working provides full time employment in which artisans are helped by their families. They earn about Rs. 2 to 3 per day. In urban areas they are employed by big establishments on piece work. In the rainy season when their work is slack they take to agriculture.

An artisan on an average requires Rs. 400 to Rs..500 as capital investment.

There were six leather-workers' co-operative societies which were situated at Aundh, Koregaon, Mahabaleshwar, Satara, Shirwal and Wai. Five of them had 209 members and Rs. 20,773 as share capital. The society at Satara produces footwears. It receives Government orders for supply of shoes to Police Department

Oil Crushing.

As the district has a large area under groundnut crop, oil industry has an important place in its economy. It is reported that there are about 700 village ghanis which engage about 1,200 artisans. Charegaon, Deur, Karad, Lonand, Malharpeth, Masur, Patan, Pusegaon, Satara and Wai are important centres where ghanis are found.

Groundnut, safflower and karanji seeds, which are used as raw materials, are purchased from local market and are stored during the season.

Kolu ghanis driven by one or two bullocks are mostly used for oil crushing. A few artisans use Nutan ghanis. There are no other implements except drums for oil storage and an iron bar. The cost of Kolu ghani is about Rs. 300. The whole set including a bullock requires about Rs. 700.

The kolu ghani consists of a wooden trough which holds seed and a wooden cylinder about four feet high fitted right in the centre of the trough with a heavy cross beam on the top in a standing position, one end of which rests about a foot from ground. A semicircular block of wood is attached to the lower part of the trough with a piece of wood projecting and forming a right angle with the upper beam at the end nearest the ground. On this piece of wood a large stone is placed and communication with the upper beam is effected by means of ropes playing on a pulley and as the ropes are tightened and the block rises the pressure of the cylinder is increased. A blind-folded bullock is yoked to the upper beam. The bullock goes round the trough and by the revolving of the cylinder the seeds are crushed. Oil is squeezed out and falls to the bottom of the trough while the residue forms into a solid mass round the sides of the trough as oilcake.

Production.—On an average about 100 lbs. of groundnut seeds are crushed in ten hours. The cost for crushing 100 lbs. of groundnut which yield about 30 lbs. of oil and about 70 lbs. of cake comes to about Rs. 30. The market for the products is generally local. A small percentage of it is sent to Ratnagiri district.

In this industry both men and women work. Men do the work of extraction of oil and women of cleaning groundnut or safflower. It is a seasonal industry which works for eight months in fair weather. In the rainy season when artisans are without employment they follow agriculture as a subsidiary occupation.

Groundunts are stocked in bumper season when the prices are low. The stocks are purchased on personal credit and in a few cases advances are made by merchants to the artisans on the hypothecation of their products.

There were eight oilmen's co-operative societies, one each at Charegaon, Deur, Karad, Malharpeth, Lonand, Pusegaon, Satara and Wai in 1957-58. They had 209 members and Rs. 20,773 as share capital. The Maharashtra Village Industries Board advances loans for share capital and working capital to them.

Handloom Weaving.

Handloom weaving was carried on in almost all towns and large villages in the district by Khatris, Koshtis, Salis and Momins. Cotton yarn of coarse count was brought from Tasgaon, Jath and Athani and of fine count from Bombay. Khatris, Koshtis and Salis wove coarse cloth and Momins cheap turbans. Though weavers worked. throughout the year, their earnings were hardly sufficient to support them as they could not compete with mill-made cloth. This situation worsened in post war period between 1920-1935 and almost remained static till the dawn of independence, as their interest was never safeguarded by the British Government. In the post-independence period, Government has been taking keen interest in the uplift of their economic lot by giving them financial aid and training them in the improved methods of weaving and arranging for the sale of their products. Abolition of intermediary has proved to be a boon. As a result the industry is regaining strength.

Among the existing cottage industries in the district, handloom weaving is the most important. It employs about 4,000 persons. There are 1,900 handlooms, of which 1,300 are pit-fly shuttle looms, 150 frame fly shuttle looms and 450 automatic looms. They are located at different centres like Bavdhan, Janugadewadi Kale, Karad, Kolewadi, Mhaswad, Morve, Phaltan, Rajapur, Umbraj, etc. Almost the whole industry is managed by independent weavers and a small part of it is controlled by master weavers who engage weavers on daily wages or on piece work.

In this area the main handloom product is bandhani sari in which cotton yarn of 20^s and 30^s or 40^s and 40^s is used in its body and of 40^s and 60^s or silk or artificial silk is used in its border and anchu or padar. Silk or artificial silk is used only in costly saries. Cotton yarn is purchased from open market. It is also supplied by co-operative societies to their members and by master weavers to artisans dependent on them. The average consumption of yarn per loom per month is as follows: —

Cotton yarn dyeing is done at Karad or Poona. The charges for dyeing varied from Rs. 4 to Rs. 15 per 10 lbs. Sago and gum are used in sizing. Looms and their accessories are wider stays, drop box shuttles, reeds, healds, warping frame, dobbies, etc. Old and crude methods of weaving were followed by the artisans. A few of them are trained in new methods of weaving by the Department of Cottage Industries. The cost of accessories of an automatic loom which has recently been introduced is as follows: —

Production:—The products are coarse and fine saris and dhotis, uptime and pasodis, shirting, coating, bed sheets and towels. But the percentage of products like fine cloth is much less as they are very recently introduced. The special product is a sari of Bavdhan type in which cotton yarn of 40^s is used in warp and wept. This sari is 8½ or 9 yards length and fifty inches in width. The cost of production of 40 such saries, which require about 50 lbs. of cotton yarn, 21 lbs. of silk is about Rs. 400. The details of cost are given below:—

The market for the products is almost local. Government has opened five sales depots one each at Satara, Kolewadi, Wai, Mhaswad and Phaltan for the sale of the products.

On an average, an automatic loom can produce about eight yards of cloth while a fly shuttle loom can produce only four to five yards of cloth per day. The average net income of a weavers' family which consists of two adult members and two children is about Rs. 3 per day.

Khadi Weaving.

There were 21 weavers' co-operative societies which had 1,682 members and Rs. 18,103 as share capital in 1957-58. Their total turnover in that year was about Rs. 3,39,811. Men usually weave and women do other preliminaries like carding, sizing, etc. Their working day is seven to eight hours, with a holiday on amavasya, the last day of each month of Hindu-calender.

The total number of 775 persons engaged in khadi weaving centres located at Bhadale, Kaledhaon, Khed, Lalgaon, Mayni, Nimsod, Rajapur, Taradgaon etc. was 775 in 1956-57. These artisans used kisan or box charkha and a loom for weaving and a carding machine as tools and equipment. The total production of khadi was about 17,000 yards, valued at Rs. 32,000 (1956-57).

Wool Weaving.

Wool Weaving:—Wool weaving is one of the old industries of the district. During the last century Sanagars, who wove woollen blankets, were found all over the district. Their number has now diminished. The process of making blankets is as follows. The wool is soaked in tamarind water and dried in open air and combed. It is resoaked and dried again before it is used for weaving. Yava, piece of wood about three feet long and six inches round, with a pointed end, otkula, a long piece of wood about four feet long and an inch broad, and niri, a long piece of wood with an indented side, are the tools used by them. These artisans are very poor and do not have much capital. Their condition has remained much the same for decades together.

There are about 2,10,700 sheep and the wool output in the district is estimated to be 7,00,000 lbs. The total population engaged in wool weaving was about 600 in 1956-57. In 1951, 73 stablishments employing 144 persons were engaged in wool spinning and weaving. Dhanagars who usually shear sheep and Sanagars who weave kambalis are engaged in the industry. The Dhanagars move from place to place and shear sheep twice a year, once before rainy season and secondly at the beginning of winter. Bidal, Chitali Kaledhon, Gulumb, Mahimangad, Mhaswad, Shivade, etc., are the important centres.

Wool, tamarind seeds, woollen yarn, constitute the main raw materials of the industry. Woollen yarn spun by shepherds is abundantly available in the markets at Lonand and Mhaswad where raw wool is sold at about a rupee per lb.

The artisans in the industry follow primitive methods and use very old fashioned tools. They used pit and throw shuttle looms and very crude apparatus for spinning, carding and weaving. A hollow bamboo 12" in length and one and a half inches in diameter is used as a suttle. All the looms and their accessories are manufactured and repaired locally. A loom with its accessories costs about Rs. 100.

A rough kambal, which is locally known as Ghongadi, 100 inches in length and 50 inches in width is the main product. A good weaver weaves one kambal in a day and an average weaver five in a week. The cost of a medium type of Ghongadi is Rs. 7 which includes cost of woollen yarn. Ghongadis are sold at Rs. 50 to Rs. 90 per " bodh " which contains eight Ghongadis. Ratnagiri and Kolaba constitute the main markets for these products where they are sold prior to the advent of the rainy season. Uttar Satara Jilha Khadi Gramodyoga Sahakari Sangh purchases these articles from the weavers.

Wool weaving is a seasonal industry which engages artisans for about eight months in fair weather. They take to agriculture in the rainy season when their work is slack. Wool is first graded and carded by a hand carder and then spun into yarn. Then follows warping and weaving.

Weavers require capital for the purchase of raw materials which are to be stocked. They get advances from local merchants on hypothecation of their products. At times Rs. 700 to Rs. 800 are required for the stock of raw material. The amount is usually borrowed from local merchants.

There were seven wool weavers' co-operative societies in 1957-58, one each at Dudebhavi, Gulumb, Mhaswad, Malharpeth, Shivade, Wathar and Wai. They had 336 members and Rs. 11,847 as share capital. The turnover of these societies was Rs. 4,370, in the same year.

Rope-Making.

Ghaypat (Agva-Sisalava), from which fibre is extracted, is grown all over the district but abundantly in Man and Khatav talukas. It is planted on bunds which serves as a fencing to the field or grown on the banks of the river Krishna. It is an old industry in which about 5,000 persons are said to be engaged. In 1951, 569 establishments with 1,292 persons were engaged in this industry. It is a hereditary occupation of Mangs. Mayni, Vaduj and Gondavle are a few of its important centres.

The main material required is Ghaypat from which fibre is extracted by the process of retting. Superior quality of fibre is sold at Rs. 10 per maund of 24 seers. As the whole process of rope-making is done by hand, no tool except a wooden twisting wheel is used in it.

The main products are ropes of different sizes, such as required for agricultural purposes, nadas, kasaras and saundars. A family of three persons produces in a week 15 nadas, thick ropes used on a mot for fetching water from a well. Each nada is sold at about Rs. 6. The market for these articles is generally local and for fibre l'oona and Ahmadnagar distritcs.

Rope making is done only in fair weather as it cannot be done in the rainy season. On an average a family of four persons engaged, in this industry earns about Rs. 4 per day.

These artisans are always in need of finance which is usually advanced to them by merchants at high rates of interest on hypothecation of their products. There were ten rope makers' co-operative societies situated at Andori, Borgaon Gondavle, Khind, Karad, Khatav, Mayni, Ladegaon, Godanale and Nidhal. Out of them four were defunct and One was newly started. They had 343 members and Rs. 3,831 as share capital. The annual turnover or the five was Rs. 11,508 in 1957-58.

Process of rope making : Ghaypat is retted in water for eight days and dried in air for a day and thrashed by a wooden stick. It is then cleaned in water to get pure fibre.

A handful of fibre is taken and twisted into thin strands which are then carried by the same process to a suitable length. One person lakes the long strand and the other goes to a distance of 30 to 60 ft. and starts twisting it again. The twisted length is folded and again twisted with the help of a wooden twisting wheel into a rope consisting of three to twelve strands as required.

Brick and The Industry.

Almost all villages have two or three Kumbhar families whose hereditary occupation is to make earthen vessels and toys and to supply them to the village people. At a few places like Karad, Satara, Wai and Phaltan they make idols of Goddess Gouri and God Ganapati during Ganapati festival and gadgis during the days of Makar Samkrant, idols of cobra during Nagpanchami festival and various other idols during Divali. Those artisans who live in villages round about the rivers Koyna and Krishna make bricks and tiles. About 2,500 artisans are engaged in this occupation. Formerly this occupation formed one of the twelve balutas in the rural areas. This system is now fast vanishing. Black and red clay free from stones is required to make earthen vessels, bricks and tiles. Roth the type of clays and falling leaves of pimpal and banyan trees used for baking are available in plenty on the banks of the two rivers. Groundnut husk which is available in plenty and coke obtained from the Southern Railway stations at Wathar, Karad and Koregaon are also used in bhattis for baking them.

The tools of a potter consist of an earthen wheel for making vessels a brick-kiln for baking bricks, tiles and vessels and wooden moulds for making bricks. The construction of a potter's wheel is as follows: a flat piece of wood is first cut into a circular form of about eight inches in diameter and a small flat circular stone having a hollow in the middle is fixed in the centre of the piece of wood. Six thin sticks are inserted as spokes in the piece of wood which serves as the nave. Three hoops are then tied to the ends of the spokes with a thin rope and the circumference of the wheel is loaded with a mixture of clay and goat hair to make it heavy. A slant wooden peg about nine inches long is buried in the ground. A pit is filled with water and the wheel is placed on the peg which rests in the hollow of the stone fixed in the nave. The total value of a set of these tools is about Rs. 50.

These artisans produce vessels like ranjan, gadgi, madki, toys, tiles and bricks. A few skilled artisans produce kundis for gardening purposes. The cost of 10,000 bricks which are produced by ten persons in ten days is about Rs. 330 including wages, cost of fuel, etc. Bricks are sold between Rs. 40 and 45 per 1,000. Those artisans who are balutedars give their products to agriculturists and in return get a fixed quantity of grains. It is a seasonal industry. In the rainy season when artisans are out of employment they take to either agriculture or do shakarani work (covering of roof with thatch or grass and tiles) on daily wages.

There were two potter's co-operative societies, one at Karanje and the other at Arale, both in Satara taluka. These had 62 members and Rs. 2,130 as share capital and produced bricks worth Rs. 1,255 in 1957-58.

Hand-made paper.

There is one hand-made paper producing factory. It is situated at Ogalewadi. It produces high grade hand-made paper from cotton  and hosiery rags. It was originally started at Poona and was shifted to Ogalewadi in 1949. The total investment in 1949 in buildings, plant, machinery, raw material, and goods-in-process was about Rs. 3,70,000 which rose to Rs. 5,60,000 in 1959.

The main requirements of the factory are bleached or unbleached rags of cotton and hosiery, washing soda, caustic soda, bleaching powder, sulphate of alumina, rosin, zinc oxide, etc., which are brought from Bombay.

The factory produces different kinds of hand-made paper with the help of one power plant of 100 B. H. P., beaters; rack cutting machines, vats, moulds, hydraulic press calender and paper cutting machines. The total employment in it was 150 in September 1959. An unskilled worker is paid Rs. 1.35 and skilled, Rs. 2.75 per day.

The main products are drawing paper, bond paper, air mail paper, bristle board and degree paper. It produces annually about 75 tons of high grade hand-made paper valued at Rs. 5,00,000. Originally there was no adequate market for its products and it was running at a loss. From 1955, the Khadi and Village Industries Commission is using the factory as a training centre for production of high quality hand-made paper. Since then it has received orders from various Government offices and Universities and wiped out much of its deficit.

Lack of finance and adequate supply of cotton rags at reasonable prices are the main problems faced by the factory.

Process of hand-made paper.—Cotton rags after being cut into small pieces are digested in a digester of Vomiting type and are washed in a washing machine. They are then beaten into pulp in a beater of Hollender type. The pulp is taken for making paper sheets on a semi-automatic vat. This process gives wet paper which is then pressed in a hydraulic press so as to remove water from the wet paper and then it is dried in the air. After being sized by gelatine and dried, it is calendered in a plate glazing machine and sorted and packed into moisture proof wrapping paper and sent for sale.

Carpentry.

Carpentry which formed the occupation of only Sutars in the past is now followed by communities like Marathas, Muslims, etc., who construct houses, make furniture and repair agricultural implements in rural areas. At places like Karad, Koregaon and Satara, they make carts and tongas. About 1,500 persons are engaged in this industry. Its main centres are Karad, Koregaon, Mhaswad, Satara and Vaduj.

Tools required are chisels, saw, files, plaining machines, measuring foot, hammers, etc. The whole set of tools costs about Rs. 500. Each artisan possesses one set. Teak, babul and khair wood are locally available.

Carpenter is a skilled worker who earns about Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 daily when he is engaged in construction of houses. Those who are independent workers earn about Rs. 5 each per day. In rural areas necessary wood is supplied to them when an order is placed. They undertake such work on piece rate.

Carpentry is a full time employment which keeps the artisans busy for about ten hours in a day. They usually enjoy holiday on Amavasya, the last day of the month. A carpenter, alongwith an assistant, produces a bullock cart within a fortnight. It is a seasonal industry which keeps the artisan busy for about eight months in a year. In the rainy season when they are unemployed, they take to farm labour.

The artisans do not require a big capital in the industry except those who are having big establishments. An average artisan requires about Rs. 400 to start with. He usually borrows the same from local money-lenders or co-operative societies.

There were two carpentry and smithy co-operative societies in 1957-58. They had 31 members and Rs. 1,250 as share-capital.

Copper and Brass works.

Tambats and Kasars were found in almost all towns in Satara district in the last century. The metal was brought from Bombay and Poona. Most of the output was sold locally and small quantity of it was sent to Bombay. Their earnings were hardly between Rs. 50 and Rs. 500 per year. During the first world war the industry received little fillip and was adversely affected during the period of the Great Depression. The Second World War did not prove to be a boon for its expansion as the domination of intermediaries and poverty of artisans came in the way of its development. The industry has remained almost static throughout the last seventy-five years.

This industry which engages about 2,000 artisans belonging to Twashtra Kasar community is mainly centred at Karad and Satara. There are about 40 small karkhanas, engaging about two or three artisans each. A few Marathas, Malis, Muslims have also taken up this occupation.

Brass and copper sheets are mainly used for preparing vessels. Independent artisans obtain them from Bombay at Rs. 4.12 per seer of brass plate and Rs. 4.50 per seer of copper plate. Hammers,, chisels, cutters, tongs, calipers, etc., are used at tools.

Main products are brass and copper utensils, such as ghagari, handas, lotas and tapelis for domestic use. One artisan produces two tapelis weighing about 16 lbs. per day, the cost of which is about Rs. 29.50 nP. Those who are employed on contract take the following wages:—

(1) Rs. 4 for a tapeli of copper weighing eight seers.

(2) Rs. 5.50 for a ghagar or handa of copper weighing eight seers.

(3) Rs. 7 for a ghagar or handa of brass weighing eight seers.

The market for the products is Sangli, Sholapur and Mysore.

These artisans are mostly employees who produce utensils on piece rate basis or on contract basis. They do not require large capital, for the provision of raw materials is made by the merchants. Their establishments are situated at the places of their residence where both manufacturing and selling of products take place.

No co-operative societies were organised in this industry till 1958-59.

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