THE PEOPLE

MUSALMANS

Musalmans are found all over the district. They include forty-three sub-divisions, seventeen of which, all with a foreign element, marry together and form the main body of regular Musalmans, and twenty-six of local and apparently unmixed Hindu origin form distinct communities. The foreign element includes strains of Arab, Abyssinian, Persian, Moghal and upper and south Indian blood.

In the eighteenth century, inspite of the decline of the Musalman power, considerable number of Arabs were attracted to the service under the Maratha chiefs and the fall of the Musalman kingdom of Mysore in 1799 brought some Musalman adventurers to the Deccan during the early years of the present century either as merchants or as camp-followers. Most of the mercenaries disappeared from the Deccan districts on the establishment of the British power in 1818. But the Kakars, Bedras, beef-butchers, Mukris, and other camp-followers remained chiefly in Sholapur town and cantonment. Most of them have a tradition that they came to their present settlements with General Wellesley's army in 1803, but it is probable that so long as the Deccan continued to be garrisoned from Madras, new-comers from the south settled at the different military stations and during the last hundred and fifty years a small number of Bohora and Momin traders from Gujarat and Kutch have settled in the Sholapur cantonment.

Except that the men wear the beard, the local converts differ little in appearance from Sholapur Hindus. As a rule, the communities of outside or of part-outside origin are large-boned and fairer-skinned and have sharper and more marked features and lighter eyes than the corresponding classes of Hindus. The women show fewer traces of foreign blood and in many cases can hardly be distinguished from Hindu women. Except villagers who speak Marathi and Kanarese, the home-tongue of the main body of the Sholapur Musalmans is Urdu, spoken either correctly or with a mixture of Marathi. Those of local origin speak either Marathi or Urdu abroad. The staple food of the majority of the Sholapur Musalmans is rice, millet, pulse and vegetables. with chillis and tamarind though as a class they are non-vegetarians Husbandmen, as a rule, take three meals a day, breakfast about seven in the morning, dinner about mid-day while they are in their fields, and supper on returning home in the evening. Poor Musalmans cannot afford mutton or beef daily but almost all have it on Bakar Id, Ramzan and Shabebarat and other great days. As a rule most men of the Shaikh and Syed classes wear a headscarf or dupeta, a long overcoat, a shirt, a waistcloth and loose trousers. The Labbays dress in the same way as the Shaikhs or Syeds except that they wear the lungi or waist-cloth instead of trousers. Middle class and poor men dress in a pair of trousers or a waistcloth, a shirt, a coat, a Maratha turban and a pair of shoes. Except Bohoras and Memans who dress in a backless short-sleeved bodice with a petticoat and a pair of trousers all Sholapur Musalman women wear the Maratha robe and bodice without passing the skirt of the robe back between the feet.

Except the traders, weavers and other classes of craftsmen, the bulk of the town Musalmans are somewhat idle, given to good living and improvident; of the villagers, the husbandmen especially are hardworking, orderly and thrifty. Of town Musalmans some are tradesmen and a good many are craftsmen. The bulk are soldiers, constables, messengers and servants. Of the village Musalmans, the greater number are husbandmen and the rest craftsmen. The women add nothing to the family-income.

Sameness in faith, worship, manners and customs binds the Musalmans into one body. Except the bodies of Musalman converts who have either never given up or who have again reverted to Hindu practices all are Sunnis by faith, worship at the same mosques, per form the same ceremonies and employ the same kazis. Among the local converts the Bohoras who are Ismaili Shias of the Daudi sect have a separate mosque and never pray in the regular Sunni mosque. Another irregular sect are the Ghair Mahadis or Anti-Mahadis who hold that the expected Saviour or Imam has come in the person of Muhammad Mahadi who lived in north India during the fifteenth century; and the Wahabis who would do away with the worship of saints and with all respect for religious doctors. Among the special communities the Bakar Kasabs or mutton-butchers, the Bagbans or fruiterers, the Pinjaras or cotton-teasers, the Sikalgars or armourers, the Gavandis or masons, the Dhobis or washermen, and Pakhalis or water-carriers have such strong Hindu leanings that they do not associate with other Musalmans, almost never come to the mosques, eschew beef, keep Hindu feasts and openly worship and offer vows to the Hindu gods. Of the regular Musalmans about ten per cent teach their children to read the Kuran. Almost all Musalmans are careful to observe the circumcision of their male children, and the initiation or bismillah, and to have their marriage and death ceremonies performed by the kazi or judge, or by the mulla or priest. Though as a rule they do not attend daily prayers almost all Sholapur Musalmans attend public prayers on the Ramzan and Bakar Ids, and are careful to give alms to the poor and to pay the kazi his dues. Their religious officers are the kazi or judge, now chiefly the marriage registrar, the khatib or preacher, the mulla or priest, the mujavar or beadle, the bangi or caller to prayer. Under Musalman rule the kazi was the civil and criminal judge, but except that he leads the public prayers on the days of the Ramzan and Bakar Ids, he is now little more than a marriage and divorce registrar. Inspite of the loss of his most important functions, the kazi holds a high place in the Musalman community. The mulla or priest who is a deputy of the kazi, generally appointed by him, conducts marriage and death ceremonies at villagers' houses and kills animals both for Hindus and Musalmans. The Marathas, as a rule, do not themselves kill sheep and goats or eat the flesh of animals killed by any one except by mullas. The mulla holds a free grant of land or Is yearly paid in grain by the villagers besides what he gets for conducting marriages and deaths at the villager's, after having paid the kazi three-fourths of the proceeds. Most of these mullas are illiterate and know only thrice to repeat bismillah or In Allah s Name on the knife before it is used in cutting the animal's throat. The mujavar or beadle is either a hereditary servant at the shrine of a saint employed by the descendants of the saint or a descendant himself when the income of the shrine is small. He keeps the shrine clean and lives on the offerings that are made to the saint. When the worshipper brings offerings to the shrine, the beadle burns frankincense before the saint's tomb and lays the offerings at the top of the tomb. He then asks the saint to give his blessing to the worshipper and divides the offerings into two parts, keeping one for himself and handing the other to the worshipper with a pinch of frankincense ashes. The religious teachers of the Sholapur Musalmans are called pirjadas or descendants of saints. They live at Belgaum, Bijapur or Gulburga and come yearly or once in two or three years to gather their dues from their worshippers. As a class pirjadas are lazy, unthrifty and uneducated, and most of them are fond of intoxicating drinks and drugs. They live on the produce of their quit-rent lands and funds raised by contribution among their followers or worshippers and do not preach their doctrines or make new converts. The followers or worshippers of the same saint or pir love each other so well that each follower looks upon his fellow disciple as a brother or sister calling each other pirbhai or religious brother, or pirbahin or religious sister. When a Musalman wishes to become a disciple of a pirjada he has to give a money present or nazrana and a dinner party to his religious teacher who enrolls the new worshipper's name in his list of followers and gives him in return a paper roll of genealogical tables containing the names of the teacher's ancestors. The worshippers value these tables even more than life, and especially among the lower classes they are buried with the dead under the belief that the names mentioned in the tables may relieve the dead from the agonies of hell. All Musalmans except the Bohoras and Wahabis believe in saints or pirs and offer them vows when they are sick or in difficulty. Most of the artisan classes and husbandmen also either privately or publicly worship the Hindu gods and goddesses and make vows to Mhasoba, Satvai and Yallamma. The Sholapur Musalmans make pilgrimages to Bijapur, Pune and Gulburga and believe in witchcraft, sooth-saying and evil spirits.

The chief ceremonies among the Sholapur Musalmans are at birth, circumcision, marriage, puberty and death. Town Musalmans marry their boys between fifteen and twenty and their girls before they come of age. Village Musalmans marry their children earlier than townsmen, and except that they are less expensive village Musalman marriages are a counterpart of town Musalman marriages. Except that many Sholapur Musalmans have ceased to perform the betrothal ceremony since the 1876-77 famine, their customs are the same as those of Pune Musalmans. A few send their boys to school and teach them to read the Kuran. About twenty per cent of town Musalmans, including traders and Government servants, teach their boys Marathi and Urdu and sometimes English. Almost all village Musalmans make their sons begin to work as soon as they are eight or nine. Meman and Bohora boys learn Arabic enough to read the Kuran and also Gujarati and Urdu. On the whole, the town Musalmans are fairly off and except a few craftsmen, the village Musalmans are poor.

The forty-three classes of Sholapur Musalmans may be arranged into two groups, four main classes and thirteen minor classes who intermarry, differ little in look, dress and customs, and together form one body; and twenty-seven separate communities most of which are distinct in matters of marriage and have some peculiar or irregular customs or dress. The main body of Musalmans who inter-marry and differ little in look, dress or customs besides the four main classes of Syeds, Shaiks, Moghals and Pathans, include thirteen minor classes, of whom the Wahabis are a separate religious sect, the Beams are traders, the Atars or perfumers are shop-keepers, and seven classes, including Barutgars or firework makers, Kafshgars or embroiderers, Kalaigars or tinners, Manyars or bracelet makers, Rafugars or tailors, Rangrez or dyers, and Sutars or carpenters are craftsmen, and two classes Mahawats or elephant-drivers and Sarbans or camel-drivers are servants. Of the twenty-six separate communities, six are of non-local origin, of whom four Bohoras and Memans from Gujarat, Labbays from the Malabar coast, and Mukris from Mysore are traders and two Kakars or Afghans and Pendharis are dealers in ponies. Of the twenty-one separate communities of local origin one is a religious sect of Ghar Mahadis, four Bagbans or fruiterers, Bojgars or millet beer sellers, Tamboiis or betel-sellers, and Bhadbhunjas or parched grain dealers are shop-keepers, two Bhois or fishers and Kanjars or fowlers are animal dealers; nine Bakar Kasabs or mutton-butchers, Gai Kasabs or beef-butchers, Gavandis or masons, Momins or Raibharas literally reed-fillers that is weavers, Sikligars or armourers and Saltangars or leather dyers are craftsmen; one Darweshis or wild beast keepers are tiger and bear showmen; and four Bhatyaras or cooks, Dhobis or washermen, Halalkhors or sweepers and Pakhalis or water-carriers are servants.

Of the four leading divisions of Musalmans Moghals, Pathans, Shaikhs and Syeds all except Moghals are large communities whose members are found throughout the district.

Moghals: Moghals are found in small numbers over the whole district especially in the town of Sholapur. They claim descent from the Moghal conquerors of the Deccan in the seventeenth century (Ahmadnagar in 1600 and Bijapur in 1686). By inter-marriage, and probably because many of them are local converts who took the name Moghal from their patron or leader, they have entirely lost their foreign appearance. Their home-tongue is Urdu and like Shaikhs and Syeds whom they bear similarity in look, they speak Marathi and Kanarese with the local Hindus. The men add mirza or beg to their names and the women bibi to theirs. The men shave the head and wear the beard full and except that they wear a Maratha turban, their dress is the same as the Syed's or Shaikh's. The women who wear the Maratha robe and bodice add nothing to the family income and never appear in public. The men are constables, servants, messengers and husbandmen and are hard-working and thrifty but badly off and in debt. They are Hanafi Sunnis and religious and marry their daughters to Pathans, Shaikhs and Syeds. They teach their children to read the Kuran and send them to school but are very poor.

Pathans: Pathans, found over the whole district in large numbers, are said to be the descendants of the Afghan mercenaries and military leaders who conquered or took service in the Deccan, or of the local converts who took the name of their leader. The men are tall, dark or olive-skinned, well-made and strong. They shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a turban or headscarf, a shirt, a waistcoat, and a pair of tight trousers. The women are well-built and regular-featured and dress in the Maratha robe and bodice. The men add khan to their names. Their home-tongue is Urdu and they speak Kanarese and Marathi abroad. The women do not appear in public, and do nothing but mind the house. The town Pathans are soldiers, constables, messengers and servants, and the village Pathans are husbandmen. Though hard-working and thrifty, most of them still suffer from the effects of the 1876-77 famine. They do not differ from Syeds and Shaikhs or Moghals in their social and religious customs and give their daughters to and take wives from these three classes. They are Sunnis but are very careless about saying their prayers. They send their children to school.

Shaikhs: Shaikhs in theory belong to three leading Kuraish families, the Sidikis who claim descent from Abu Bakar Sidik, the Fakirs who claim descent from Umar-al-Faruk, and the Abbasis who claim descent from Abbas, one of the prophet's nine uncles. In fact the bulk of the Shaikhs are chiefly, if not entirely, of local descent. The men take Shaikh or Muhammad before their names and women add bibi or lady to theirs. They do not differ from Syeds in look and like them speak Urdu at home. The men shave the head or let the hair grow and wear full beards. The town Shaikhs wear a headscarf or dupeta or Hindu turban, a shirt, and a pair of tight trousers, and the village Shaikhs a turban,-waistcoat and a waistcloth. The women, who differ little in appearance from high class Hindu women, dress in the Maratha robe and bodice, and except the poor and villagers do not appear in public or add to the family income. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits. The men are husbandmen, soldiers, constables, messengers and servants, and are hard-working and thrifty. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are religious and careful to repeat their prayers. They respect the kazi and employ him to conduct and marry either among themselves or with any of the leading Musalmans. They teach their boys to read the Kuran and send them to vernacular schools.

Syeds: Syeds or Elders are said to have settled in the district from the beginning of Musalman rule in the Deccan. Their home-tongue is Urdu but they speak both Marathi and Kanarese fluently. As a rule Syeds are larger-boned and better-featured than the local Musalmans, and their women are fair and delicate-featured. The men shave the head and wear the beard and dress in a headscarf or dupeta, a shirt, a waistcoat, and an overcoat hanging to the knees, a waistcloth, or a pair of loose trousers. The women wear the Hindu robe and bodice, and neither appear in public nor add to the family income. As a class they are clean, neat, honest, hard-working and thrifty. They are landholders, religious and careful to say their prayers. They respect and obey the kazi and keep no Hindu customs. They have no special organisation and except that they occasionally marry their daughters to Shaikhs and take to wives the daughters of the regular Musalmans, they marry only among their own class. They send their boys to school and teach them to read the Kuran and Marathi books.

Special communities: Twelve classes who are separate in name only and marry with the four general divisions and with each other form part of the main body of Sholapur Musalmans.

Atars: Atars or perfumers, all local converts, are found in small numbers in Sholapur and other towns and large villages. They are middle-sized, dark, and well-built and speak Urdu at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. They are clean, neat, honest, hardworking and thrifty. Atars are dealers in scented oils and powders. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and their customs differ little from those of regular Musalmans. They are religious, obey and respect the kazi, and marry with the regular Musalmans.

Barutgars: Barutgars or firework makers, a class of local converts, are found in Sholapur town. They rank themselves with Shaikhs and their home-tongue is Urdu. Of middle height, strongly made and dark or olive-skinned, they are clean, neat and hard-working. Barutgars are firework makers and their trade is brisk in the fair season especially at Divali and during the marriage time. The Shabebarat holidays also bring them a good deal of work. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of other regular Musalmans. They belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis and are careful to say their prayers. They marry among ordinary Musalmans and have no separate community.

Bedras: Bedras, immigrants from Mysore, are found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. They are converts from the great Bedaru tribe of hunters and husbandmen and were converted by and were in the service of Haidar Ali, and are said to have come to Sholapur in 1803 with Colonel Wellesley's army. They speak Urdu at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. They are tall, middle-sized, well-made and fair. They rank with the Pathans and marry with both Shaikhs and Pathans. They are religious and differ little from other Musalmans in customs. They teach their children to read the Kuran and send their sons to the local vernacular schools.

Kafshgars: Kafshgars or shoe-makers are local converts found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur only. The men are wheat-coloured and middle-sized. The Kafshgar's home-tongue is Urdu but they speak Marathi or Kanarese abroad. Kafshgars are makers of the embroidered red or yellow broadcloth shoes which are generally worn by Musalman married women for one or two years after marriage. Kafshgars marry with the lower classes of Musalmans and do not form a separate community. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and obey the kazi, but are not careful to say their prayers. Their social and religious customs are the same as those of regular Musalmans.

Kalaigars: Kalaigars or tinners, all local converts, are found in small numbers all over the district. In look, dress, speech, character, and religion they are similar to Kafshgars and their customs are the same as regular Musalman customs. As a class they are hard-working and thrifty. They belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis and have no special organisation. They are religious and careful to say their prayers.

Mahawats: Mahawats or elephant-drivers, the descendants of local converts, are found in the cantonment of Sholapur. In look, speech, dress, character and customs they resemble regular Musalmans. They have become husbandmen, messengers and servants. They are religious.

Manyars: Manyars or bangle-sellers, the descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in towns. They resemble other regular Musalmans in speech, look, dress and character, and are neat, clean, hard-working and thrifty. The Manyars sell glass and wax bangles and deal in hardware. They are religious and their social and religious customs are the same as those of regular Musalmans.

Rafugars: Rafugars or darners, descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. They rank themselves with Shaikhs and are similar to them in look, speech, dress and character. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are careful to say their prayers and obey and respect their kazi. Their social and religious customs are the same as Shaikh customs. Besides darners many are soldiers, constables and servants. Though hard-working and thrifty as a class they are badly off.

Rangrez: Rangrez or dyers, descendants of local converts, are found in towns only. They are middle-sized, strong and well-built and their women are fair and regular-featured. Their home-tongue is Urdu and they are neat, clean and hard-working. In look and dress they resemble regular Musalmans and their women appear in public and help in preparing colours besides minding the house. They dye robes, turbans, scarfs, and constable's trousers. They belong to the Hanafi Sunni sect but are very careless in saying their prayers. They have no separate organisation and their social and religious customs do not differ from those of regular Musalmans.

Sarbans: Sarbans or camel-drivers are descendants of local converts of the Hindu class of the same name and are found in the town of Sholapur. They are dark, middle-sized, regular-featured and strong, and their home-tongue is Urdu. Both men and women dress like Marathas. Their women appear in public, and except that they mind the house, do not help the men in their work. They are religious and belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis. They teach their children to read the Kuran and do not differ from regular Musalmans in religious or social customs.

Sutars: Sutars or carpenters, descendants of local converts from the Sutar caste, are found in the town and cantonment of Sholapur. In look and speech they resemble regular Musalmans. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but are careless of fulfilling their religious duties. They practise all the regular Musalman observances and have no special community rules for themselves.

Wahabis: There are two or three Wahabi preachers in the town of Sholapur who try to persuade the people to join their sect. The movement has not met with the support of the learned or rich and has made little progress. Their converts are chiefly from Mukris, Pendharis, and a few betel-sellers, all of them ignorant and illiterate.

Separate communities: Of the twenty-six separate communities, the four of non-local origin are:

Bohoras: Bohoras, mostly immigrants from Gujarat, are found in small numbers in the town of Sholapur. They are partly of Hindu and partly of Arab and Persian origin, and are said to have come from Gujarat to Sholapur about forty years ago. Their home-tongue is Gujarati and they speak Urdu abroad. They are thin, tall and fair. The women, who are delicate, fair-skinned and regular-featured, dress in a coloured cotton headscarf. When they go out-of-doors they throw a dark cloak over their head which covers the body to the ankles, with gauze openings for the eyes. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits and have a large store of chinaware and copper vessels. All are shop-keepers dealing in hardware, drugs, and piece-goods, and make tin pots and looking glasses. They marry among themselves alone, and though they dine with other Musalmans, they form an altogether separate community. In religion they are Shias of the Ismaili sect, believe in the twelve Imams or saints, and hold in great respect the Mulla Saheb of Surat, the high priest of their faith. One of the rich traders of their community is appointed the Mulla Saheb's deputy at Sholapur, and collects the high priest's dues. They have a separate mosque where they preach without the help of any priest. Though they do not associate with ordinary Musalmans there is no great difference in their customs and observances. Their chief peculiarity is that their month begins with the full moon and their feast and fast days fall a fortnight before those of the Sunnis.

Gaikasabs: Gaikasabs or beef-butchers, descendants of local converts, are found in small numbers in the Sholapur cantonment. They say their fore-fathers were converted by Tipu Sultan (1783-1799) and came to Sholapur with General Wellesley's camp. Their home-tongue is Urdu. Except that they wear the beard full, in look and dress beef-butchers resemble mutton-butchers. They have no separate organisation and their customs are the same as those of ordinary Musalmans. They belong to the Hanafi school of Sunnis in name only as they are said to be very careless in repeating their prayers.

Mehmans: Mehmans, properly Momins or Believers, are immigrants from Kutch. They are chiefly descended from converts of the Kutch Lohana caste and are said to have come to Sholapur from Bombay within the last hundred and sixty years. Their home-tongue is a mixture of Kutchi and Urdu and they speak Urdu abroad. They are tall, fair and well-made. Their women are delicate, fair, and regular-featured, and dress in a headscraf, a long silken shirt and a pair of loose silk trousers. They marry among themselves only, and form a district community but have no separate class organisation and no headman. They respect and obey the kazi of the ordinary Musalmans and associate with them in every respect. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and are careful to say their prayers.

Mukris: Mukris, said to mean deniers, are found in small numbers over the whole district. They are immigrants and are said to be descendants of Hindus of the Leman tribe who were converted by Tipu Sultan (1785-1799). They call themselves Patans or people from Srirangaptam and seem to have got the name Mukris or Deniers for their proverbial dishonesty. They say they came to Sholapur with General Wellesley's army in 1803. [These and other classes probably came with General Munro in 1818 and not in 1803.] Their home-tongue is Urdu. They are tall, dark, strong, and regular-featured. The women are tall like the men but fairer and thinner. They are proverbial cheats, and being hard-working and thrifty are well-to-do. They form a separate community with a headman generally chosen by the caste people from among the richer families who punishes breaches of social rules with fines and caste-feasts. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and respect and obey the kazi of the regular Musalmans.

The twenty separate communities of local origin are:

Bagbans: Bagbans, literally gardeners or fruiterers, all descended from local Kunbis, are found in large numbers in towns and large villages. In speech and look they resemble ordinary Musalmans and except that they do not wear trousers, their daily dress is the same as the regular Musalman dress. They nominally belong to the Hanafi sect of Sunnis but practically are Hindus worshipping regular Hindu gods, keeping the Hindu fasts and feasts, and eschewing beef. They marry among themselves and form a separate community with a headman chosen from among their richest families. The head, with the consent of the majority of the caste-men, punishes breaches of social rules With fines.

Bakar Kasabs: Bakar Kasabs or mutton-butchers, descended from converts of the Lad Kasab caste, are found in large numbers all over the district. They trace their conversion partly to Aurangzeb and partly to Tipu Sultan of Mysore. They are said to have come to Sholapur with the army of General Wellesley, but are more likely to have come with General Munro in 1818. They have two sub-divisions Kamals or blanket-wearers and Kaundas or quilt-wearers. Kamals found in the Deccan and Karnatak work as butchers only while the Kaundas are found only in the ex-Nizam's country and are called Chaknavalas or boiled mutton sellers. The Sholapur Kamals speak Urdu at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. Both men and women are dirty and untidy, but hard-working and thrifty. They have fixed shops and never hawk flesh about the streets. As a class they are orderly, honest and well-to-do. Except that they ask the kazi to register their marriages or employ him at their deaths, they never perform any Musalman rites or associate with other Musalmans. They keep all Hindu fasts and feasts, hold beef-butchers in contempt, and eschew beef. Their names are the same as Hindu names and they form a separate community under their headman or patel.

Bhadbhunjas: Bhadbhunjas or grain parchers are found in small numbers in all towns and large villages. They are dark, strong and well-built, and except that they wear the beard, in look, speech and dress they resemble upper Indians or Pardeshis. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but seldom say their prayers, and their customs are a mixture of Hindu and Musalman rites. They marry only among themselves and have a well-organised union under their headman who is chosen from among the richest families. They differ from ordinary Musalmans in eschewing beef, keeping Hindu feasts, and offering vows to Hindu gods. They respect and obey the kazi whom they employ to register their marriages and sometimes to settle their caste-disputes.

Bojgars: Bojgars or boj or millet beer sellers, local converts of the Bhoi caste, are scattered in small numbers over the district. They speak Urdu at home and Marathi or Kanarese abroad. They are dark, spare, tall and rough-featured, shave the head, and wear the beard full. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect and though careless in saying their prayers they obey and respect the kazi and employ him to register their marriages. They marry among themselves and form a distinct community under a headman chosen from among the oldest and richest families. They have a caste-council.

Bhois: Bhois or fishers and palanquki-bearers, descended from local converts of the Hindu tribe of the same name, are found over the whole district. They speak Urdu among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with others. The men are dark, middle-sized, and well-made. The women are fairer than the men, and appear in public but do not add to the family income. As a class Bhois are dirty and untidy. The men are palanquin-bearers but except on marriage occasion among the Musalmans the demand for their services has ceased since the time of the opening of roads and railways. They marry among themselves or with Bojgars and form a separate community. They have strong Hindu leanings, eschew beef, and keep Hindu festivals. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school in name, they seldom pray or keep Musalman customs. They obey and respect the kazi and employ him to register their marriages.

Bhatyaras: Bhatyaras or cook, probably descended from local converts, are found in small numbers over the whole district. They speak Urdu with themselves and Kanarese or Marathi abroad. In look and dress they do not differ from ordinary Musalmans. As a class Bhatyaras are dirty and untidy in their habits and are boarding-house-keepers. They marry among themselves and form a distinct body under a headman chosen from among their richer families. Though they call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi school they seldom say their prayers.

Dhobis: Dhobis or washermen, converts from the Hindu caste of the same name, are found in small numbers over the whole district. In look, speech and dress they resemble ordinary Musalmans and their social and religious customs are the same as Musalman customs. They marry among themselves only. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect but they never say their prayers and have strong Hindu leanings, eschewing beef and keeping Hindu feasts and making vows to Hindu gods.

Gavandis: Gavandis or Kadias, local converts of the caste of the same name, are found in small numbers in towns and large villages. They speak Urdu at home and Marathi abroad. They are strong, dark and well-made. The women are generally of middle height and fairer than the men. Both men and women are dirty and untidy but hard-working. They are stone masons and brick-layers. They marry among themselves, form a separate community and have a caste-council of elders who punish wrong-doers with fines. They say they are Sunnis of the Hamtfi school but have strong Hindu leanings, making vows to Hindu gods, eschewing beef, and keeping Hindu festivals.

Ghair Mahadis: Ghair Mahadis or Anti-Mahadis, who believe that the last Imam or Saviour has come, are found in small numbers over the whole district. The founder of their sect was Muhammad Mahadi, son of Syedkhan of Jaunpur, who was born in 1443 (847 H.). He began to preach at the age of forty as a saint or wali and drew round him a number of followers both at Mecca and at Jaunpur. In 1497 he openly called himself the looked-for Mahadi and his public career was marked by a number of miracles. After his death in 1504 from fever his son with a few followers came to the Deccan, and in 1520, Burhan Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar became a staunch believer in the Mahad sect Even now their largest number of Ghair Mahadis are found in Ahmadnagar. Their converts were chiefly low and ignorant Musalmans. Though free to profess their opinions the Ghair Mahadis still practise caution or takiyab, and most of them are anxious to pass as orthodox Musalmans. They speak Urdu and except that they hold that Muhammad Mahadi is the last Imam or expected Saviour and that they do not repent for their sins or pray for the souls of the dead, they do not differ from regular Musalmans in look, dress or customs. They marry among themselves and live in circles or dairas governed by rules of their own.

Halalkhors: Halalkhors or sweepers, perhaps descended from local converts of the Bhangi caste, are found in considerable numbers in Sholapur. Except that they are nightsoil-men they do not differ from other Musalmans in look, dress and social and religious customs. The women work as much as the men. As a class they are dirty and untidy in their habits. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and have strong Hindu leanings. They employ the kazi at their marriages and deaths and attend mosque only on the Bakar Ids and the Ramzan days. They do not associate with other Musalmans who look down on them. They are considered impure, and are not allowed to read or even to touch the Kuran. They worship Hindu gods and keep Hindu feasts.

Kanjars: Kanjars or poulterers, probably descended from local converts of the Vadar or Pardhi tribes, are found in small numbers over the whole district. Their home-tongue is Urdu and all are tall, dark and thin. As a class Kanjars are dirty and untidy in their habits, rear and sell poultry, and make hemp ropes and coir. Except that they say that they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and ask the kazi to register their marriages they are Hindus in religion, worshipping all Hindu gods and goddesses and keeping the regular Hindu fasts and feasts. They form a separate community under their headman who settles social disputes and punishes breaches of social rules with fines. They marry among themselves only.

Momins: Momins or weavers, probably local converts of the Koshti or Sali class, are found in large numbers over the whole district. They are said to have been converted in the fourteenth century by an Arabic preacher Pir Syed Husein Gaisudaraz or Khav Bunda Nawaz who died in 1408 (825 H.) at Gulburga. The descendant of this saint or pir still hold the position of religious teachers or pirjadas to the Sholapur Momins who call themselves the pirjadas disciples or murids and pay them a yearly tribute. Except that they wear the beard and speak Urdu at home, in look, dress and speech they resemble the Hindu weavers, and their women appear in public and help in weaving. Both men and women as a rule are dirty and untidy, but honest, orderly and hard-working. They marry among themselves and form a separate body under their headman who is chosen from among their rich and well-to-do families. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect and though seldom careful to say their prayers they obey the kazi and perform all the leading Musalman ceremonies. They pay great respect to the Gulbarga saint by whom their forefathers were converted to Islam and to his descendants.

Pakhalis: Pakhalis or water-carriers, probably descended from local converts from the Hindu caste of the same name, are found in small numbers in towns only. Except that they wear heavy gold ear-rings, the Pakhalis do not differ from ordinary Musalmans in dress, look, speech and customs. They are water-suppliers and carry water in leather bags on their bullocks' back. They marry among themselves only, and have a separate caste-council and headman who settles social disputes. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and have strong Hindu leanings, worshipping Hindu gods, keeping Hindu feasts and fasts, and eschewing beef.

Pendharis: Pendharis, found in small numbers in the Sholapur cantonment, are descended from converts from mixed Hindu classes, who before the establishment of British supremacy in India were a dread and plague to the country. They have a mixture of local and upper Indian blood, and speak a mixture of rough Urdu, Malvi and Marathi. As a class they are tall, dark, strong and well-made. The women are rather fairer than the men. Though hard-working they are neither sober nor honest. They marry among themselves, and have a separate caste-council and a headman or jamadar. They eschew beef and worship Yallamma. In religion they say they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, and their customs are the same as ordinary Musalman customs. Of late some among them have begun to attend the mosque and to leave worshipping Hindu gods.

Panjnigars: Panjnigars or sizers, descended from local converts, are found in small numbers in towns only. They speak Urdu among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with Hindus. They are dark, strong and middle-sized. The women, who are fairer than the men and regular-featured, dress in the Maratha robe and bodice and appear in public. They call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi sect but seldom say their prayers. They do not send their children to school.

Patvegars: Patvegars or tassel twisters, descended from local converts of the caste of the same name, are found scattered over the district in small numbers. In look, speech and dress they resemble other local Musalmans and are clean and neat in their habits. They are tassel twisters, make silk buttons, deck pearl and gold ornaments with silk, and sell false hair. They are hard-working, orderly, and thrifty and are fairly off. They form a distinct body under their headman called chaudhari and marry among themselves. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, obey and respect the kazi, and employ him at marriages and deaths, but they seldom say prayers and have strong Hindu leanings. They eschew beef, keep Hindu feasts and offer vows to Hindu gods and goddesses.

Rachbharas: Rachbharas or heddle-fillers, probably descended from local converts of the same caste, are found in towns and large villages. They form a distinct branch of Momins, and are like them in look, speech, dress and customs. Besides heddle-filling they weave and are hard-working but given to drink and live from hand to mouth. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school but seldom say their prayers and keep Hindu festivals.

Sikalgars: Sikalgars, otherwise called Sikligars or armourers, descended from local converts of the Lohar caste, are found in small numbers all over the district. In look, speech and dress they resemble ordinary Musalmans and as a class they are neat and clean in their habits. They marry among themselves and form a distinct body under their headman who is generally chosen from their well-to-do families. Their social and religious customs resemble those of Patvegars and other Musalmans of local origin.

Saltangars: Saltangars or tanners, descended from local converts, are found in small numbers in Sholapur. They speak Urdu at home and Kanarese or Marathi abroad, and in work, dress, and social and religious customs are like ordinary Musalmans. As a class they are dirty and untidy in their habits. They marry among themselves and form a distinct community under their headman. Though Sunnis of the Hanafi school they seldom say their prayers and have strong Hindu leanings, keeping the Hindu feasts and offering vows to Hindu gods.

Tambolis: Tambolis or betel-sellers, local converts of the Kunbi class, are found in considerable numbers in towns and large villages. They speak Urdu among themselves and Marathi or Kanarese with others. The men are tall or of middle height, and dark or olive-skinned. The women are fairer than the men and wear the Maratha robe and bodice. As a class Tambolis are hard-working, clean, neat, orderly and thrifty, and many of them are fairly off. They marry only among themselves and have a separate and well-organised class union under their headman called patel, who holds caste-meetings, settles social disputes and fines the breakers of caste rules. They have no connection with other Musalmans and eschew beef. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi sect, but worship Brahmanic gods and goddesses and make offerings to Mariai, Mhasoba and Satvai. They keep Hindu fasts and feasts but obey their kazi and ask him to register their marriages.

TOP