The Gazetteers Department

The sections on Mediaeval Period onwards have been contributed by Dr. B. K. Apte, M.A., PhD., Centre of Post-graduate Instruction and Research, Panaji, Goa.]

IN 1967 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS WERE CONDUCTED BY THE NAGPUR UNIVERSITY AT PAUNAR, five miles from Wardha, the report of which has just been published. On the basis of ceramic evidence the earliest period of habitation there goes back to about 1000 B.C. to 800 B.C. This period is characterised by ' the occurrence of the painted pottery, absence of iron and a thin variety of the Black-and-Red pottery, one shred of which showed traces of painting in white. The earliest habitation was indicated by a patchy floor of compact brown clay rammed to a thickness of about 10 cm. right on the black soil layer. There was no evidence of post-holes, but the remains of a circular hearth with the circular arms made of a roll of clay were discovered. [ Paunar Excavation (1967) (pub. by Nagpur University), pp. 6 f.]" We have not had more evidence of the habitation of this period.

Pre-History and Archaeology.-The remains of the next or chalcolithic period were discovered in the excavations carried on at Kaundinyapur in the adjoining district of Amravati and also in the later strata at Paunar. The characteristic peculiarities of the culture of this period may be described as follows:-

' The earliest habitations of the people of this period must have been in the river valleys. The thick forests which must have covered them were first cut down with their stone and copper tools. The elevated sides on the banks of the rivers were chosen for a settlement. Each settlement may have consisted of about 50 to 100 huts, the huts were small, measuring 10 ft. by 9 ft. and were either rectangular or round. They were constructed with wooden posts, the walls being of mud and the roof of bamboo matting, dry leaves etc., covered with a layer of mud. The houses were furnished with large and small storage jars, bowls (vatis) and vessels (lotas) with long spouts. Their red surface was painted in black with geometric designs or figures of animals. They wore garments of cotton and probably also of (wild) silk. For their ornaments they used beads of semi-precious stones, crystal, terracotta and rarely of copper and even of gold. Silver was unknown. Bangles were made of copper, burnt clay or stone, rarely of ivory.

For weapons they used products of the chalcedony blade industry, flat copper axes, and slings with round balls of various sizes. Their tools were made of dolerite and copper. They pounded their grains with plano-convex rubber stones. Besides, they ate beef, mutton, pork, venison and river fish. Hunting and animal grazing formed their main occupations.

They buried their dead either within the house floor or outside. The children were buried in wide-mouthed urns. The dead were provided with bowls, spouted vessels and necklaces of copper and carnelian.

Economically these people were in a pastoral-cum-hunting-cum-agricultural stage and lived in small villages on river banks. They still used stone for various purposes, the use of copper being rare. This kind of life continued until it was changed by a fresh influx of people who came with a knowledge of iron, agriculture and town-planning in about the fourth century B.C.

Who these people were is not definitely known, but one plausible conjecture is that they belonged to some of the Aryan tribes. This theory, however, needs confirmation by stronger evidence.'

The above gleanings are from the excavations at such sites as Nevasa. We shall next see what light is thrown on this period by literary sources. According to literary tradition, when the Aryans penetrated to the Deccan, the whole region was covered by a thick jungle, which extended southward from Central India. Agastya was the first Aryan who crossed the Vindhya and fixed his residence on the bank of the Godavari. This memorable event is commemorated in the mythological story which represents Vindhya as bending before his guru Agastya when the latter approached him. The sage asked the mountain to remain in that condition until he returned from the south, which he never did. Agastya was followed by several other sages who established their hermitages in different regions of the south. The cluster of hermitages on the bank of the Godavari was called Jana-sthana to distinguish it from the surrounding forest country. The sages living there were constantly harassed by the original inhabitants of the region who are called Rakshasas in the Ramayana. These shapeless and ill-looking monsters testify to their abominable character by various cruel and terrific displays. They implicate the hermits in impure practices and perform great outrages. Changing their shapes and hiding in thickets adjoining the hermitages, these frightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees; they cast away their sacrificial ladles and vessels; they pollute cooked oblations and utterly defile the offerings with blood. These faithless creatures inject frightful sounds into the ears of the faithful and austere hermits. At the time of the sacrifice they snatch away the jars, the flowers and the sacred grass of these sober-minded men. [ Muir's Sanskrit Texts quoted in the first edition of the Nagpur District Gazetteer, 1908, p. 24.]

In course of time a large kingdom was founded north of the Godavari by Vidarbha, the son of Rishabhadeva. His capital was Kundinapura in the adjoining Amravati district. The country has since then become known by the name of Vidarbha. Agastya married the daughter Lopa-mudra of king Vidarbha. Agastya is the seer of some hymns of the Rigveda. His wife Lopamudra is also mentioned in the Rigveda, I, 179,4. The country became well known in the age of the Brahmanas and the Upanishads in which it is frequently mentioned. The Ramayana, in the Uttarakanda, states the story of king Danda or Dandaka, in whose time Vidarbha was devastated by a violent dust storm. Danda was a son of Ikshvaku and grandson of Manu. He ruled over the country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains from his capital Madhumanta. He led a voluptuous life and once upon a time, he violated the daughter of the sage Bhargava. The sage then cursed the king that his whole kingdom would be devastated by a terrible dust-storm. The whole country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains, extending over a thousand yojanas, was consequently turned into a great forest, which since then came to be known as Dandakaranya.

The central part of the Deccan was divided into several countries known by different names. Thus, the region to the north of the Godavari, now included in the Aurangabad district, was known by the name of Mulaka. This country together with its capital Pratishthana (modern Paithan) is mentioned in Pali literature. To the north of it lay the country of Rishika, now called Khandesh. Along the southern bank of the Godavari extended the country of Ashmaka (Pali, Assaka), which comprised the modern Ahmadnagar and Bid districts. Later, this region came to be included in the country of Kuntala, which extended far to the south. It included what is now known as the Southern Maratha Country as well as North Karnataka and the Shimoga and Chitaldurg districts of the old Mysore State. In an inscriptional passage the upper valley of the Krishna is said to be included in the Kuntala country. [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, P. 9;] In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th cen. A.D.) Pratishthana on the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharashtra. The Aihole inscription (7 th cen. A. D.) speaks of three Maharashtras, which probably comprised Vidarbha, Western Maharashtra and Kuntala. In later times Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kanarese country now included in the Mysore State. It is described as a seven and half lakh province. The Early Chalukyas of Badami and the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntalendras or lords of Kuntala. In the earlier days, however, the districts of Kolhapur, Satara, Sholapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid, which are now Marathi-speaking, were included in Kuntala. As we shall see later, the Early Rashtrakutas, who were ruling over this territory, were known as Kuntaleshvaras (or rulers of Kuntala).

Coming to historical times, we find that all this territory was included in the Empire of Ashoka. An inscription issued by the Dharmamahamatra of Ashoka has been found at Devtek in the Chanda district which adjoins the Wardha district. It was issued in the fourteenth regnal year of Ashoka and interdicts the capture and killing of animals. [ Ibid., Vol. I, p. 109 f.] Again, the fifth and thirteenth rock-edicts of Ashoka mention Rashtrika-Petenikas and Bhoja-Petenikas. According to many scholars, Petenikas were inhabitants of Pratishthana, the Rashtrikas ruled as Maharathis in Maharashtra, while the Bhojas held Vidarbha.

After the overthrow of the Maurya dynasty in circa 184 B.C. the imperial throne in Pataliputra was occupied by the Senapati Pushyamitra, the founder of the Shunga dynasty. His son Agnimitra was appointed Viceroy of Malva and ruled from Vidisha, modern Besnagar, a small village near Bhilsa. Vidarbha, which had seceded from the Mauryan Empire during the reign of one of the weak successors of Ashoka, was then ruled by Yajnasena. He imprisoned his cousin Madhavasena, who was a rival claimant for the throne. The sister of Madhavasena escaped to Malva and got admission as a hand-maid to the queen Dharini under the name of Malavika. Agnimitra, who had espoused the cause of Madhavasena and had sent an army against the king of Vidarbha, fell in love with Malavika and married her. The Malava army defeated the king of Vidarbha and released Madhavasena. Agnimitra then divided the country of Vidarbha between the two cousins, each ruling on one side of the Varada (Wardha). The Wardha district was included in Eastern Vidarbha. The story of Malavika forms the plot of the Sanskrit play Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa.

Kalidasa does not state to what royal family Yajnasena and Madhavasena belonged, and these names do not occur anywhere else. Still it is possible to conjecture that they may have been feudatories of the Satavahanas. From the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Bhuvaneshvar, we learn that Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, who was a contemporary of Pushyamitra, sent an army to the western region, not minding Satakarni. The latter evidently belonged to the Satavahana dynasty as the name occurs often in that family. Kharavela's army is said to have penetrated upto the river Kanhabenna and struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rishika. The Kanhabenna is evidently the river Kanhan, [Studies in Indology, Vol. Ill, pp. 46.] which flows about 10 miles from Nagpur, and not the river Krishna, which flows not west but south west of Udayagiri. Kharavela's army thus invaded Vidarbha. He knew that as the ruler of Vidarbha was a feudatory of king Satakarni, the latter would rush to his aid. When Vidarbha was thus invaded, the people of Rishika (Khandesh), which bordered Vidarbha on the west, were naturally terror-stricken. No actual engagement seems, however, to have taken place and the army returned to Kalinga perhaps at the approach of the Satavahana force.

Satakarni belonged to the Satavahana family. This family derived its name from king Satavahana, [ Studies in Indology, Vol. Ill, pp. 1 f.] who rose to power soon after the death of Ashoka and had his capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan). It received support from the local rulers called Maharathis, with whom it formed matrimonial alliances. This dynasty is called Andhra in the Puranas, but that it originally hailed from Western Maharashtra is indicated by its earliest inscriptions which are found in the caves at Naneghat near Junnar and at Nasik. Its earliest coins have been found at Aurangabad and in Vidarbha. In later times it extended its rule to Andhra as shown by its later inscriptions and coins found in that region. The Puranas call it Andhra evidently because it was ruling in that country when the Puranic account was compiled in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Though Satavahana was the founder of this family, he is not mentioned in the Puranas. The first king of the Andhra (i.e., Satavahana) dynasty mentioned in the Puranas is Shimuka (Shrimukha), who is also known from a relievo-statue of his in a Naneghat cave. We do not know the extent of his kingdom, but it is surmised to have spread at least from Junnar to Pratishthana (Paithan). When he ended his rule, his son Satakarni was a minor and so his brother Krishna ascended the throne. He has left an inscription in a cave which he got excavated for the Buddh-ist monks at Nasik. The next ruler of the dynasty was Satakarni I, who is also known from a relievo figure now mutilated in a Naneghat cave. He married Naganika, the daughter of Maharathi Tranakayira, who also was represented by a relievo statue in the same Naneghat cave. He seems to have extended his rule over the whole of the Deccan and even carried his arms north of the Narmada. King Kharavela of Kalinga, who was his contemporary, sent an army to the west, not minding Satakarni, who is probably this very ruler. When the army reached Kanhabenna, which, as shown above, is probably the Kanhan flowing near Nagpur, it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rishika (Khandesh). There was no actual clash of arms on this occasion, but two years later; Kharavela probably penetrated further west as he claims to have received submission from the Rathikas and the Bhojakas, who were probably ruling in the Deccan as feudatories of the Satavahanas.

Satakarni performed the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices (the latter twice), which probably commemorated important victories or supremacy in the Deccan and as such, had political significance. He also performed several other Shrauta sacrifices such as Agnyadheya, Aptoryama, Dasharatra, Trayodasharatra, Angirasatriratra, Shataratra, Gavamayana, etc., all of which were marked by munificent gifts of horses, elephants, and Karshapanas. They are recorded in a large, but now sadly mutilated, inscription in a cave at Naneghat. Vidarbha was evidently included in the dominion of Satakarni.

Satakarni left behind two sons, Vedishri and Shaktishri, who are mentioned in the afore-mentioned Naneghat inscription. Vedishri, who succeeded him, is described as a very brave prince, whose army was always victorious and who became the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan) [ Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 122 f.]. He was succeeded by a number of rulers, who are named in the Puranic lists, but about whom they furnish little information except their reign-periods, which also vary in the different Puranas, and even in the manuscripts of the same Puranas. But one name among them is noteworthy. It is that of king Hala, the reputed author of the Gathasaptashati, a unique collection, of seven hundred Prakrit verses descriptive of the social, religious and economic life of the period. Hala flourished in the first centruy A.D. [ Ibid., Vol. I, p. 76 f.]

Some years after Hala's reign Maharashtra was conquered by the Shaka Kshatrapas. Nahapana, a Shaka Kshatrapa probably appointed by the contemporary Kushana Emperor, was ruling over Konkan, Pune-Nasik and some other districts of Western Maharashtra as also some portions of Central India as far north as Ajmer. Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Kshatrapa named Rupiamma as disclosed by a pillar inscription recently discovered at Pavni in the Bhandara district. [ Nagpur University Journal, Vol. XVI, p. 1 f.] The Satavahanas were therefore obliged to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha, and to repair to the southern part of their dominion, but Gautamiputra Satakarni soon retrieved the fortune of his family. He made a daring dash into Vidarbha and occupied Benakata or the Wain-ganga district. Thereafter he invaded Western Maharashtra and defeated Nahapana somewhere in the Nasik district. This is shown by his inscription in one of the Nasik caves, wherein he is called Benakatakasvami or the lord of Benakata (Wainganga district). He extended his rule to a large part of the peninsula as his chargers are said to have drunk the water of three oceans. The following provinces are specifically mentioned as comprised in his dominion:-Rishika (Khandesh), Ashmaka (Ahmadnagar and Bhir districts), Mulaka (Aurangabad district), Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti (Eastern and Western Malva), Suratha (Kathiawad). and Aparanta (Konkan). That his empire extended much farther is shown by the description that Setagiri (near Nagarjunikonda), Shristana (Kurnul district) and Mahendra (between the Godavari and the Krishna) were situated in his kingdom.

After defeating Nahapana, Gautamiputra called back the silver coins of the Shaka Kshatrapa and restruck them. The Jogaltembhi hoard contained more than 10,000 silver coins so counterstruck. He himself issued a large number of potin coins with the figure of an elephant with uplifted trunk on the obverse and the Ujjain symbol on the reverse. [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. Ill, p. 38 f.] In the hoard of potin coins found at Tarhala in the Akola district of Vidarbha, out of nearly 1,200 decipherable coins as many as 575 were of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vasishthiputra Pulu-mavi, who also ruled over an extensive kingdom, but seems to have lost some northern provinces like Akaravanti and Surashtra (Kathiavad) to the Kshatrapas. He is mentioned by Ptolemy as ruling at Pratishthana. He was succeeded by his brother Vasishthiputra Satakarni, who married the daughter of the Shaka Kshatrapa Rudradaman I. Among his successors the most noteworthy was Yajnashri Satakarni (C.174-203 A.D.) whose inscriptions and coins have been found over a large area. They show that he ruled over an extensive kingdom stretching from Konkan in the west to Andhradesha in the east. He issued among other types the ship-type lead coins indicative of his rule over the maritime province of the Coromandel Coast. [ Studies in Indology, Vol. III, p. 17 f.]

Within fifty years after Yajnashri Satakarni, the rule of the Satavahanas came to an end. The Satavahanas were liberal patrons of learning and religion. As stated above, the early kings of the family performed Vedic sacrifices and lavished gifts on the Brahmanas. Krishna, Gautamiputra, Pulumavi and Yajnashri excavated caves and donated villages to provide for the maintenance, clothing and medicine of the Buddhist monks. As stated above, the Gathasaptashati (or Sattasai), an anthology of 700 Prakrit verses, is, by tradition, ascribed to Hala of this family. Another Prakrit work of the age was the Bihatkatha of Gunadhya. It was written in the Paishachi Prakrit. The original Prakrit work is not extant now, but two Sanskrit versions of it viz., the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva and the Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra are well known. Gunadhya was a native of the town of Supratishtha, which, from references in some grants of the Vakatakas, is known to have been situated in the Hinganghat tahsil of the Wardha district. It may be identical with the village Pothra, situated on a small river of the same name, which joins the Wunna.

About A. D. 250 the Satavahanas were supplanted by the Abhiras in Western Maharashtra and by the Vakatakas in Vidarbha. The founder of the Abhira dynasty was Rajan Ishvarasena, the son of Shivadatta, who has left an inscription in a cave at Nasik. He started an era commencing in A. D. 250, which later became well known as the Kalachuri-Chedi era. Judging by the expansion of this era, Ishvarasena and his decendants seem to have ruled over a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Northern Maharashtra.[ Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Chedi Era (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. IV), p. xxxiv.] He was followed by nine other kings, whose names unfortunately do not occur in the Puranas, which only state that they ruled for 67 years. From a casket discovered during excavations at Devni Mori in Gujarat, we know the name of one of these kings as Rudrasena. His family name Kathika also has become known from the same source. He was ruling in the year 127 of the Abhira era, corresponding to A. D. 376-77 [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 120 f.]. The Abhiras were supplanted by their feudatories the Traikutakas in circa A. D. 415.

The names of three Traikutaka kings are known from their inscriptions and coins viz., Indradatta, Dahrasena and Vyaghrasena. Dahrasena performed an Ashvamedha and was therefore an independent king; but his son and successor Vyaghrasena had to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Vakataka king Harishena. [ C. I.I., Vol. IV, p. xl f.]

After the downfall of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas rose to power in Vidarbha. This dynasty was founded by a Brahmana named Vindhya-shakti I, who is mentioned in the Puranas as well as in an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. His son Pravarasena I called Pravira in the Puranas, ousted Shishuka, the daughter's son of the Naga king of Vidisha, who was ruling at Purika at the foot of the Rikshavat (Satpuda) mountain. Pravarasena I ruled over an extensive part of the Deccan. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including four Ashvamedhas and assumed the title of Samrat (Emperor). According to the Puranas, he ruled from the aforementioned city of Purika. He had four sons, among whom his extensive empire was divided after his death. Two of these are known from inscriptions. The eldest son Gautamiputra predeceased him. His son Rudra-sena I held the northern parts of Vidarbha and ruled from Nandivardhana near Ramtek in the Nagpur district. He had the powerful support of king Bhavanaga of the Bharashiva family, who ruled at Padmavati near Gwalior and who was his maternal grandfather. Rudrasena I was a fervent devotee of Mahabhairava. He had no regard for the ahimsa precepts of Ashoka. He had, therefore, no scruples in getting some portion of the aforementioned Devtek inscription of Ashoka's Dharmamahamatra chiselled off and in having his own record incised in its place. [Studies in Indolosy, Vol. I, p. 114 f.] The latter proclaims the construction of his dharmasthana (temple) at Chikkam-buri (modern Chikmara near Devtek.).

Rudrasena I was followed by his son Prithivishena I, who ruled for a long time and brought peace and prosperity to his people. During his reign this branch of the Vakatakas became matrimonially connected with the illustrious Gupta family of North India. Chandragupta II-Vikramaditya married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Prithivishena's son Rudrasena II probably after securing the Vakataka king's aid in his war with the Western Kshatrapas. Rudrasena II died soon after accession, leaving behind two sons, Divakarasena and Damodarasena alias Pravarasena II. As neither of them had come of age, Prabhavatigupta ruled as regent for the elder son Divakarasena for at least thirteen years. She seems to have been helped in the administration of the kingdom by military and civil officers and statesmen deputed by her father Chandragupta II. One of these was the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, who, while residing at the Vakataka capital Nandivardhana, must have often visited Ramagiri (modern Ramtek) which lay three miles away. The theme of his excellent lyric Meghaduta seems to have suggested itself to him at this place.

Prabhavatigupta has left us two copper-plate inscriptions. The earlier of them, though discovered in distant Pune, originally belong to the Wardha district. It was issued from the then Vakataka capital Nandivardhana and records the dowager queen's grant of the village Danguna (modern Hinganghat in the Wardha district) to a Brahmana after offering it to the feet of the Bhagavat (i.e., the god Ramchandra) on Karttika shukla dvadashi evidently at the time of the parana after observing a fast on the previous day of the Prabodhini Ekadashi. Some of the boundary villages mentioned in the grant can still be traced in the vicinity of Hinganghat. Thus Vilavanaka, which bounded the donated village Danguna on the west, is Vani, about two and a half miles west of Hinganghat, while Kadapinjana, which bounded on the south, is probably Kadhajan, which lies three miles from Hinganghat. These villages were situated in the ahara or territorial division of Supratishtha. The latter seems, therefore, to have comprised roughly the territory now included in the Hinganghat tahsil. [ Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Vakatakas (C. 1.1., Vol. V) p. 6 f.]

Divakarasena also seems to have died when quite young. He was succeeded by his brother Damodarasena, who, on accession, assumed the name Pravarasena of his illustrious ancestor. He had a long reign of thirty years and was known for his learning and liberality. More than a dozen grants made by him have come to light. One of them made at the instance of his mother Prabhavatigupta in the nineteenth regnal year is noteworthy. The plates recording the grant were issued from the feet of Ramagirisvamin (i.e., god Ramchandra on the hill of Ramagiri, modern Ramtek) and register the grant which the queen made as on the previous occasion after observing a fast on the Prabodhini Ekadashi. [ Ibid. Vol. V, p. 34 f.]

Pravarasena II founded a new city, which he named Pravarapura and where he shifted his capital some time after his eleventh regnal year. He built there a magnificent temple of Ramachandra evidently at the instance of his mother, who was a devout worshipper of that god. Some of the sculptures used to decorate the temple have recently been discovered at Pavnar on the bank of the Dham, six miles from Wardha, and have led to the identification of Pravarapura with Pavnar in the Wardha district. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 272 f.]

Pravarasena II is the reputed author of the Setubandha a Prakrit kavya in glorification of Ramchandra. This work has been highly praised by Sanskrit poets and rhetoricians. According to a tradition recorded by a commentator of this work, it was composed by Kalidasa, who ascribed it to Pravarasena. The latter is also known as the author of some Prakrit gathas, which were later incorporated on the Gathasaptashati [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 81 f.]

Pravarasena II was succeeded by his son Narendrasena, during whose reign Vidarbha was invaded by the Nala king Bhavadattavarman. The latter penetrated as far as the Nagpur district and even occupied Nandivardhana, the erstwhile Vakataka capital. The Riddhapur plates record the grant which Bhavadatta made while on a pilgrimage to Prayaga. The plates were issued later from Nandivardhana, which was evidently his capital at the time. [ Ep. Ind., Vol. XIX, p. 100 f.] In this emergency the Vakatakas had to shift their capital again. They moved it to Padmapura near Amgaon in the Bhandara district. A fragmentary inscription, which was proposed to be issued from Padmapura, has been discovered at the village Mohalla in the adjoining Durg district of Madhya Pradesh [ C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 76 f.]. This Padmapura is probably identical with the birthplace of the great Sanskrit playwright Bhavabhuti, who flourished there in a later age.

The Nalas could not retain their hold over Vidarbha for a long time. They were ousted by Narendrasena's son Prithivishena II, who carried the war into the enemy's territory and burnt and devastated their capital Pushkari, which was situated in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh. Prithivishena, taking advantage of the weakening of the Gupta power, carried his arms to the north of the Narmada. Inscriptions of his feudatory Vyaghradeva have been found in the former Ajaigadh and Jaso States in Central India. [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 89 f.]

The elder branch of the Vakataka family came to an end about A. D. 490. The territory under its rule was thereafter included in the dominion of the other or Vatsagulma branch, to which we may now turn.

The Vatsagulma branch was founded by Sarvasena, a younger son of Pravarasena I. Its capital was at Vatsagulma, modern Basim in the Akola district. This branch also produced some brave and learned princes. Sarvasena, the founder of this branch, is well known as the author of the Prakrit Kavya Harivijaya, which has, for its theme, the bringing down of the Parijata tree from heaven. This kavya has received unstinted praise from several eminent rhetoricians, like Ananda-vardhana. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 99 f.]

Sarvasena was followed by his son Vindhyasena, called Vindhya-shakti (II) in the Basim plates, which he issued in the 37th regnal year. [ C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 93 f.] These plates record the grant of a village situated in the northern marga (sub-division) of Nandikada (modern Nanded in the Marathwada Division).

Vindhyasena pursued a vigorous policy and defeated the lord of Kuntala, who probably belonged to the Early Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manapura as shown below. Like his father and grandfather he assumed the title of Dharmamaharaja. His Basim plates record the earliest grant of the Vakatakas known so far. The genealogical portion of the grant, is written in Sanskrit and the formal portion is Prakrit. This shows how the classical language was gradually asserting itself under the patronage of the Vakatakas. All earlier grants of the Satavahanas, as is well known, are in Prakrit, while all the later grants of the Vakatakas are in Sanskrit.

Vindhyasena was followed by his son Pravarasena II, about whom little is known. The Ajanta inscription says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. He seems to have had a short reign; for when he died, his son was only eight years old. The name of this boy prince is lost in the Ajanta inscription. He was followed by his son Devasena, whose fragmentary copper-plate inscription is now deposited in the India Office, London. [ Ibid., Vol. V, p. 101 f.] Another record of his region, inscribed on stone, was recently discovered at Basim. It is dated in the Shaka year 380 (A.D. 458-59) and records the excavation of a tank named Sudarshana by Svamilladeva, a servant of Devasena. [ Dr. Mirashi Felicitation Volume, p. 372 f.]

Devasena had a very righteous and capable minister named Hastibhoja. He looked after the affairs of the State and pleased all subjects. Devasena entrusted the government of his kingdom to him and gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures.

Devasena was succeeded in circa A. D. 475 by his son Harishena. He carried his arms in all directions. A mutilated verse in an Ajanta cave inscription states that he conquered Avanti (Malva) in the north, Kosala (Chhattisgadh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maratha country) in the south. [ C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 106 f.] He thus became the undisputed suzerain of the entire country extending from Malwa in the north to Kuntala in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Harishena is the last known Vakataka king. As we have seen, he had an extensive empire in the Deccan. The causes which led to the sudden disintegration of that mighty empire are not recorded in history, but the last chapter of the Dashakumaracharita of Dandin who flourished only about 125 years after the fall of the Vakatakas, seems to have preserved a living tradition about the last period of Vakataka rule. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 165 f.] It seems that Harishena's son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the science of politics (dandaniti.) He gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices, neglecting the affairs of the State. His subjects imitated him and led a vicious and dissolute life. Finding this a suitable opportunity, the crafty ruler of the neighbouring Ashmaka country sent his minister's son to the court of Vidarbha. The latter ingratiated himself with the king and egged him on in his dissolute life. He also decimated his forces by various means. Ultimately; when the country was thoroughly disorganised, the ruler of Ashmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (North Kanara District) to invade Vidarbha. The king of Vidarbha called all feudatories to his aid and decided to give battle to the enemy on the bank of the Varada (Wardha). But while he was fighting with the forces of the invader, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories and was killed on the battle field. Thus ended the Vakataka kingdom after a glorious rule of two hundred and fifty years.

The Vakatakas were patrons of art and literature. In their age the Vaidarbhi riti came to be regarded as the best style of poetry and several excellent poetical works were then produced in Vidarbha. Kalidasa also adopted the same riti for his works. Some Prakrit kavyas were also produced in this period, two of which viz., the Harivijaya of Sarvasena and the Setubandha of Pravarasena have been mentioned above. Three of the caves at Ajanta viz., the two Vihara caves XVI and XVII and the Chaitya cave XIX were excavated and decorated with paintings in the time of Harishena. Several temples of Hindu gods and goddesses were also built; the ruins of one of them have come to light at Pavnar. [ Ibid., Vol. II, p. 272 f.] Others are known from references in copper-plate grants.

According to the Puranas the Vakataka king Pravarasena. I had four sons, all of whom ruled as kings. Two of them are known from inscriptions. As stated before, the eldest of them was Gautamiputra, whose son Rudrasena I, founded the Nandivardhana branch. The second was Sarvasena, who established himself at Vatsagulma. Where the remaining two sons were ruling is not known definitely. But one of them may have been ruling over Southern Maharashtra. He seems to have been overthrown by Mananka, the founder of the Early Rashtrakuta dynasty. The history of this family has been unfolded during the last few years. From three copper plate grants which have been discovered in Southern Maharashtra, we get the following genealogy: [ Ibid., Vol. I, p. 178 f.] -

Mananka, the progenitor of the family, flourished in circa A.D. 350. He founded Manapura, which he made his capital. He is described in one of the grants as the ruler of the Kuntala country. As stated before, Kuntala was the name of the upper Krishna valley in ancient times. The places mentioned in some of the grants can be identified in the Satara and Kolhapur districts. Their capital Manapura is probably identical with Man, the headquarters of the Man taluka of the Satara district. [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 184.]

These Rashtrakutas of Manapura sometimes came into conflict with the Vakatakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The Pandarangapalli plates of Avidheya state that Mananka harassed the rulers of Ashmaka and Vidarbha. On the other hand, an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta states that the Vakataka king Vindhyasena (i.e., Vindhyashakti II) defeated the king of Kuntala, who was evidently of this Early Rashtrakuta family.

From certain passages in the Kuntaleshvaradautya, a Sanskrit work ascribed to Kalidasa, which have been cited in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara, the Shringaraprakasha and the Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja and the Auchityavicharacharcha of Kshemendra, we learn that the famous Gupta king Chandragupta II-Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa to the court of the king of Kuntala. Kalidasa was at first not well received there, but he gradually gained the Kuntalesha's favour and stayed at his court for some time. When he returned, he reported to Vikramaditya that the lord of Kuntala was spending his time in enjoyment, throwing the responsibility of governing the kingdom on him (i.e., on Vikramaditya). This Kuntalesha was probably identical with Devaraja, the son of Mananka. [ Ibid., Vol. I, p. 10.] Through the influence of Chandragupta II, the two royal families of the south viz., the Vakatakas and the Early Rashtrakutas were reconciled with each other. Later Harishena, the last known Vakataka king, raided Kuntala and exacted a tribute from its king. It is noteworthy that in the eighth uchchhvasa of the Dashakumaracharita the king of Kuntala is described as a feudatory of the Emperor of Vidarbha.

After the downfall of the Vakatakas in the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Vidarbha was occupied for some time by the Vishnukundin king Madhavavarman I. This is shown by some Vishnukundin coins found at Pavnar [ These are under publication in J.N.S.I.] and some other places in Vidarbha. Madhavavarman was a very powerful king. He married a Vakataka princess who was probably a daughter or some near relative of the last known Vakataka Emperor Harishena. He took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the downfall of the Vakatakas and extended his dominion far and wide. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including eleven Ashvamedhas. That he had brought even Western Maharashtra under his rule is shown by his copper-plate grant discovered at Khanapur in the Satara district. [ Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 312 f.] His grandson Madhavavarman II describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya. So he may have ruled in Western Maharashtra for some time.

But the Vishnukundins were ousted from Maharashtra and Vidarbha by the Kalachuri king Krishnaraja, who rose to power about A.D. 550. He ruled from Mahishmati, modern Maheshvar in the former Indore State. His coins have been found at Dhamori in the Amravati district. That Vidarbha was included in his Empire is shown by the Nagardhan plates of his feudatory Svamiraja, dated in the Kalachuri year 322 (A.D. 573). [ C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. 611 f.] These plates were issued from Nandivardhana, which seems to have retained its importance even after the downfall of the Vakatakas. Svamiraja probably belonged to the Rashtrakuta family.

Krishnaraja was succeeded by his son Shankaragana, whose copper-plate grant has been discovered at Abhona in the Nasik district. It is dated in the Kalachuri year 347 (A.D. 597). His other inscriptions have been discovered in Gujarat. He was succeeded by his son Buddharaja, who was involved in a fight with the Chalukya king Mangalesha on the southern frontier of his kingdom soon after his accession. Before we describe this engagement we must briefly review the history of the Early Chalukyas of Badami.

The Chalukyas of Badami rose to power in the first half of the sixth century A. D. The Badami stone inscription of Pulakeshin I, who is the first independent ruler of this dynasty, is dated in A.D. 543. [ Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 4 f.] He performed the Ashvamedha and several other Shrauta sacrifices. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I, who made some conquests in South India and is described as ' the night of destruction ' to the Nalas (of the Bastar district), the Mauryas (of Konkan) and the Kadambas (of Vanavasi in North Kanara).

When Kirtivarman I died, his son Pulakeshin II was a minor. So his younger brother Mangalesha succeeded him. He defeated Buddharaja the Kalachuri king, who was ruling in North Maharashtra, Konkan, Gujarat and Malva, and also Svamiraja of the Chalukya family who was ruling over Revati-dvipa (modern Redi in the Ratnagiri district).

Mangalesha's reign ended in disaster and he lost his life in a civil war with his nephew Pulakeshin II. Just about this time the Chalukya kingdom was invaded from the north by one Govinda, who probably belonged to the aforementioned Early Rashtrakuta family. Pulakeshin adopted conciliatory measures in dealing with him as he was a powerful foe. His descendants do not, however, appear to have held Southern Maharashtra for a long time; for Pulakeshin soon annexed both Southern and Northern Maharashtras and extended the northern limit of his Empire to the bank of the Narmada. That he ousted the Rashtrakutas from Southern Maharashtra is shown by the Satara plates of his brother Vishnuvardhana, which record the grant of a village on the southern bank of the Bhima. Pulakeshin also defeated the Kalachuri king Buddharaja and annexed his kingdom. He is said to have thereby become the lord of three Maharashtras, including Vidarbha. The Rashtrakutas of Vidarbha, who were previously feudatories of the Kalachuris, transferred their allegiance to the Chalukyas of Badami and like the latter, began to date their records in the Shaka era. Two grants of this feudatory Rashtrakuta family have been found in Vidarbha one, dated Shaka 615, was found near Akola and the other, dated Shaka 631, was discovered at Multai in the Betul district, [ Ibid., Vol. XXIX, p. 109 f., Ind. Ant., Vol. XVII p. 230 f.] previously included in Vidarbha. They give the following genealogy:-

Durgaraja
             |
      Govindaraja
             |
      Svamikaraja
             |
      Nannaraja alias Yuddhasura

Pulakeshin obtained a resounding victory over Harsha, the lord paramount of North India. Thereafter, he assumed the title of Parameshvara (Emperor). He defeated the rulers of several countries such as Aparanta (Konkan), Kosala (Chhattisgadh), Kalinga (Orissa), Pishtapura (Pitha-puram) and Kanchi (Conjeevarum). He made the Cholas, the Keralas and the Pandyas his allies. He thus became the undisputed lord of South India.

During the reign of Pulakeshin II the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Maharashtra. He has left us the following graphic picture of the country and its people:-([ a.-s. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (pub. by Sushil Gupta), Vol. IV, p. 448 f.]) "The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies, relentless. If they are insulted they will risk their lives to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemies a warning; then, each being armed, they attack each other with spears........... If a general loses a battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him with women's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself.......... Each time they are about to engage in conflict, they intoxicate themselves with wine and then one man with a lance in hand, will meet ten thousand and challenge them to fight ............Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, which, rushing forward in mass, trample every thing down so that no enemy can stand before them. The king in consequence of possessing these men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the Kshatriya caste and his name is Pulakeshin."

Pulakeshin was killed in battle at Badami in circa A. D. 642 by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, who conquered Vatapi (Badami) and assumed the title of Vatapi-konda.

During the reign of Vikaramaditya II, a descendant of Pulakeshin II, Gujarat was invaded by a formidable force of the Tajikas (Arabs). The Navasari Plates of Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, a prince of the Gujarat Chalukya family, gave a graphic description of this battle. The Arabs had already defeated the Saindhavas, the Chavotakas, the Surashtras, the Mauryas and the Gurjaras and were attempting to penetrate into the Dakshinapatha (Deccan), but Avani-janashraya Pulakeshin inflicted a crushing defeat on the invaders. The Chalukya Emperor then honoured Avanijanashraya with several titles, one of which was Anivartaka-nivar-tayitri (the Repeller of the unrepellable). [ C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. 138 f.]

Kirtivarman, the last of these Early Chalukyas, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta prince Dantidurga some time before A. D. 754, when he issued his Samangad plates. Kirtivarman continued to rule for a few years more, but he had lost the paramount position in the Deccan.

Dantidurga was the real founder of the Rashtrakuta Imperial power. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indologv, Vol. II, p. 16 f.] His Ellora cave inscription mentions five ancestors beginning with Danti-varman, but we know nothing about them. The family probably belonged to the Aurangabad district where its earliest records have been found. The earlier members of the family were probably feudatories of the Early Chalukyas. Dantidurga made extensive conquests. The Ellora cave inscription records his victories over the rulers of Kanchi, Kalinga, Shrishaila, Malava, Tanka and Lata, but these do not all seem to have resulted in the acquisition of territory. His war elephants are said to have rent asunder the banks of the Mahanadi, the Mahi and the Reva. Though there is much exaggeration in the description of the conquests, there is no doubt that he conquered Karnataka, Maharashtra, Vidarbha and Gujarat.

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I, who completed the conquests and shattered the power of the Early Chalukyas. One of his inscriptions has been discovered at Bhandak in the Chanda district and is dated in the Shaka year 694 (A. D. 772). [ Ep. Ind., Vol. XIV, p. 121 f.] It records the grant of the village Nagana to a temple of the Sun in Udumbaramanti, modern Rani Amraoti in the Yeotmal district.

Krishna was not only a great conqueror but also a great builder. He got the great Shiva temple at Ellora originally called Krishneshvara, but now known as Kailasa, cut out of solid rock. It is one of the noblest monuments of India. A contemporary inscription tells us that the great architect who excavated it was himself surprised to see it finished and despaired of repeating the feat.

In Vidarbha also the Rashtrakutas built several magnificent temples. Those at the village Markandi in the Chanda district, where the Wain-ganga takes a northern bend, are specially noteworthy. The most beautiful among these is the Markandeya temple dedicated to Shiva. Cunningham has described it as follows [Cunningham, A. S. R., Vol. IX, p. 145.]:-"The general style of the Markand temple is like that of the Khajuraho temples, with three rows of figures all round, two feet three inches in height. In each of these rows there are 45 human figures, making 135 in the lower part of the temple. Higher up than these there is a row of geese and a row of monkeys, and above these there are four more rows of human figures. The whole surface of the temples is, in fact, literally covered with statues and ornaments. Altogether I counted 409 figures; and there are about half. as many lions and elephants forming divisions between human statues. About one half of the panels are given to Shiva and Parvati in various forms. There are also many subordinate female figures, some dancing, some playing musical instruments, and one holding a mirror, while putting antimony to her eye-lids."

The Rashtrakuta family produced several great conquerors, who boldly invaded north and south India and achieved memorable victories. Dhruva (A. D. 780-793) was the first among them. He defeated both the Gurjara -Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala, who were contending for supremacy in North India, and pressed as far as the Doab. Since then the two sacred rivers Ganga and Yamuna began to appear on the Rashtrakuta banner.

Govinda III, the son and successor of Dhruva, proved to be a still greater conqueror. After obtaining an easy victory over the Ganga king Muttarasa ruling in Gangavadi, he led victorious campaigns in Central and Northern India. He first defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata and his ally Chandragupta in Central India and then routed Dharmapala of Bengal, who had espoused the cause of Chakrayu-dha of Kanauj. He next marched victoriously to the north until his horses drank and his elephants plunged themselves into the spring waters of the Himalayas. He then returned to the Narmada, and marching along the bank of the river, he conquered the Malava, Kosala, Kalinga, Vanga, Dahala and Odra countries. He then spent the rainy season at Shribhavana (modern Sarbhon in Gujarat) and afterwards marched with his forces to the bank of the Tungabhadra. Using Alampura (or Hela-pura) on the bank of the river as his base, he led his campaigns against the Keralas, the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. Even the king of Lanka submitted to him, sending two statues-one of himself and the other of his minister to his camp at Helapura. [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXII, p. 157 f.]

Several copper-plate grants of Govinda III have been found in Vidarbha. The earliest of them was that found at Anjanavati in the Amravati district. [Ibid., Vol. XXIII, p. 8 f.] It is dated in the Shaka year 722 (A. D. 800) and records the grant of the village Anjanavanti on the occasion of a solar eclipse. Three more grants of the same king were found at Sirso in the Akola district and are dated in the Shaka years 725, 729 and 734. [ Ibid., XXXII, p. 157 f., Vol. XXIII, p. 294 f., Vol. XXIII, p. 212 f.] Another was discovered recently at Dharur in the Bid district of the Marathwada Division. It is dated in the Shaka year 728 (A. D. 806) and records the donation of the village Anahe (modern Anegaon) in the Vishaya (district) of Dharaura (modern Dharur). The boundary villages mentioned in the grant can be identified in the vicinity of Dharur. [ This is under publication in Ep. Ind.,]

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Sharva-Amoghavarsha I, who was a man of peaceful disposition, but whose reign was full of troubles. He had first to fight with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, then the Gangas of Gangavadi and his own relatives in Gujarath. He transferred his capital to Manyakhet (modern Malkhed). He loved and encouraged science and literature and treated all religions with equal reverence. He voluntarily retired from public administration to engage himself in religious pursuits. On one occasion he offered a finger of his hand to the goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur to ward off a public calamity. Such instances are rare in the history of any country.

Another noteworthy king of the Rashtrakuta family was Indra III, the great-grandson of Amoghavarsha I. Like his illustrious ancestors Dhruva and Govinda III, Indra also led victorious campaigns in north India. He followed the route of Bhopal, Jhanshi and Kalpi in the course of his invasion of Kanauj, the imperial capital of India for more than three hundred years. At Kalpi his army was encamped in the courtyard of the temple of the Sun-god Kalapriyanatha, wellknown to Sans-kritists as the place where all the plays of the Sanskrit poet Bhavabhuti were staged. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 35 f.] His horses crossed the Yamuna at Kalpi and then marched on Kanauj, which he completely devastated. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala fled to Mahoba to seek the help of his Chandella feudatory Harsha. Indra III's northern campaign was a memorable event unparalleled for its brilliance in the history of the Rashtrakutas.

Recently, a grant of Indra III made on the occasion of his coronation has been found at Jambgaon in the Gangapur taluka of the Aurangabad district. It is dated in the Shaka year 835 (A. D. 914) and records the donation of the village Khairondi near Pratishthana (modern Kharvand near Paithan). The boundary villages also can be identified in its vicinity. [Ep. Ind. XXXVI p. 223. f. Trivikramabhatta, son of Nemaditya, who wrote this grant, was probably a native of Vidarbha. In his Nalachampu he gives a detailed description of several rivers and tirthas of Vidarbha.]

Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha II, but he died within a year and was followed by his younger brother Govinda IV. The latter was known for his liberality and rightly had the biruda Suvarna-varsha (the gold-rainer). On the occasion of his coronation he donated six hundred agrahara villages and three lakhs of gold coins to Brahmanas and eight hundred villages, four lakhs of gold coins and thirty-two lakhs of silver coins (drammas) to temples. Recently another copper-plate grant of his, dated in the Shaka year 851 (A.D. 929), has been discovered at the village Andura in the Akola district of Vidarbha. [Ibid., Vol. XXXVI, p. 257 f.] It records the donation of the village Elauri (modern Erali near the railway station Nandura on the Central Railway). Most of the boundary villages can be identified in its vicinity.

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed) and the Kalachuris of Tripuri (Tewar near Jabalpur) were matrimonially connected and their relations were generally cordial. But in the reign of Govinda IV they became strained. The Kalachuri king Yuvarajadeva I espoused the cause of his son-in-law Baddiga-Amoghavarsha III, the uncle of Govinda IV, and sent a large army to invade the Rashtrakuta dominion. When the army reached the Payoshni (modern Purna), a pitched battle was fought near Achalapura between the Kalachuri and Rashtrakuta forces, in which the former became victorious. This event is commemorated in the Sanskrit play Viddhashalabhanjika of Rajashekhara, which was staged at Tripuri in jubilation at this victory. [ C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. lxxviii f.]

The Rashtrakuta feudatories who rose in rebellion against Govinda IV, deposed him and placed his uncle Baddiga-Amoghavarsha III on the throne. The latter was a man of quiet nature and spiritual temperament, who left the administration entirely to his ambitious and able son Krishna III. Like some of his illustrious ancestors, Krishna also led an expedition in North India and captured the forts of Kalanjara and Chitrakuta. He succeeded his father in A. D. 939. He then led an expedition against the Cholas and defeated them in a sanguinary battle at Takkolam in North Arcot district. He next led his victorious arms to Rameshvaram, where he built two temples. Hearing of his resounding victories, the kings of Kerala, Pandya and Ceylon submitted to him. He also placed his own nominee on the throne of Vengi. He became thus the lord paramount of the whole of South India.

The Rashtrakuta power became weak after the death of Krishna III. Within six years his large empire crumbled like a house of cards. Taila II, the founder of the Later Chalukya dynasty, who was a Mahasamamta of the Rashtrakutas, suddenly came into prominence. He defeated and killed in battle Karka II, the last Rashtrakuta king, and captured his capital Manyakheta. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Paramaras. The Paramara king Vakpati-Munja planned to invade the Chalukya dominion, but his wise minister Rudraditya advised him not to cross the Godavari, which was the boundary between the Chalukya and Paramara dominions. Munja did not heed his advice and was taken captive by Tailapa. He was placed in a prison where he was waited upon by Tailapa's sister Mrinalavati. He fell in love with her and foolishly disclosed to her the plan of his escape. She communicated it to Tailapa, who is said to have made him beg from door to door and then beheaded him.

Among the successors of Tailapa II, the most famous is Vikramaditya VI, the founder of the Chalukya-Vikrama Samvat. He ascended the throne in A. D. 1075. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Hoyasalas and signally defeated them. Two inscriptions of his reign have been found in Vidarbha. One of them, called the Sitabaldi pillar inscription, seems to have originally belonged to the Vindhyasana hill at Bhandak in the Chanda district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1008 (A. D. 1087) and registers the grant of some nivartanas of land for the grazing of cattle made by a feudatory called Dhadi-bhandaka. [ Ep. Ind., Vol. Ill, p. 304 f.] The other inscription was discovered at Dongargaon in the Yeotmal district. It sheds interesting light on the history of the Paramara dynasty. It shows that Jagaddeva, the youngest son of the Paramara king Udayaditya, the brother of Bhoja, left Malva and sought service with Vikramaditya, who welcomed him and placed him in charge of some portion of Western Vidarbha. [Ibid., Vol. XXVI, p. 177 f.] The Dongargaon inscription is dated in the Shaka year 1034 (A.D. 1112). Another inscription of this Jagaddeva has come to notice at Jainad in the adjoining Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. It records several victories of Jagaddeva in Andhra, Dorasamudra and near the Arbuda mountain, and registers the construction of a temple of Nimbaditya by his minister Lolarka. [ Ibid., Vol. XXII, p. 54 f.]

Vikramaditya's reign is renowned on account of some learned men who flourished at his court. Bilhana, who was patronised by him, wrote the Vikramankadevacharita, which is his poetical biography. Another famous author who flourished at his court was Vijnaneshvara, the author of the well-known commentary Mitakshara on the Yajna-valkyasmriti.

The decline of the Chalukya power commenced soon after the reign of Vikramaditya VI. Taila III, the last Chalukya king, was overthrown by the Kalachuri Bijjala, who was his commander-in-chief, in A.D. 1157. The Kalachuri usurpation lasted for about two decades. Bijjala's reign is noted for the rise of the Lingayat sect.

In the last quarter of the twelfth century A. D. the Yadavas of Devagiri came into prominence. They had previously been ruling over Seunadesha (Khandesh) in an earlier period, as feudatories of the Chalukyas, but Bhillama, the son of Mallugi, declared his independence and made himself master of the whole territory north of the Krishna. He then founded the city of Devagiri, which he made his capital. His son Jaitrapala killed Rudradeva of the Kakatiya dynasty on the field of battle and released his nephew whom he had put into prison. Under Jaitrapala's son Singhana the power of the family greatly increased. We get considerable information about his victories from four stone inscriptions of his general Kholeshvara at Ambe Jogai in the Bid district. Kholeshvara was a native of Vidarbha, but was residing at Ambe, where he has left his inscriptions. Some more details are furnished by a later copperplate grant of Ramachandra found at Purushottampuri in the Bid district. [ Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 199 f.]

Singhana achieved several victories. He defeated the Hoysala king Vira-Ballala, the Kakatiya king Ganapati and Lakshmidhara, the lord of Bhambhagiri, modern Bhamer in the Pimpalner taluka of the Khandesh district. He confined Bhoja II of the Shilahara family on the hill of Pranala i.e., Panhala, a strong fort about 12 miles to the northwest of Kolhapur. Most of these victories were won by his Brahmana general Kholeshvara. The latter vanquished also Arjunavarmadeva, king of Malwa, and even pressed as far north as Varanasi, where he put Ramapala to flight. Kholeshvara constructed several temples in Vidarbha and also established agraharas on the banks of the Payoshni and the Varada. The former agrahara still exists under the name of the village Kholapur in the Amravati district.

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna, who obtained victories over the kings of Gurjara, Malava, Chola, and Kerala. The Gurjara king was Vishaladeva and the Malava ruler was Jaitugideva. The contemporary Chola king was Rajendra III (A.D. 1246-1269). The Kosala king was evidently the contemporary ruler of Ratanpur in Chhattisgadh, who was probably the successor of Jajalladeva defeated by Singhana, but no records of his reign have been discovered. An inscription of the reign of Krishna has been found in the temple of Khandeshvara in the Amravati district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1177 (A.D. 1254-55) and records the donations of some gadyanas for the offerings of flowers in the temple of Khandeshvara. [ Ibid., Vol. XXVII, p. 9 f.]

Krishna was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva. From the recently discovered Kalegaon plates [ Ibid., Vol. XXXII, p. 31 f.] we know the exact date of his coronation as the 29th August A. D. 1261. The most notable event of his reign was the annexation of North Konkan after defeating Someshvara of the Shilahara dynasty. He left the throne to his son Amana, but the latter was soon deposed by Krishna's son Ramachandra, who captured the impregnable fort of Devagiri by means of a coup d'etat .[ Ibid., Vol. XXV, p, 205.] He won several victories mentioned in the Purushottampuri plates dated in the Shaka year 1232 (A.D. 1310). He is said to have defeated with ease the ruler of Dahala (i.e., the Chedi country), subjugated the ruler of Bhandagara (modern Bhandara), and dethroned the king of Vajrakara (Vairagadh). He is further credited with a victory over Muhammedans, whom he drove out from Varanasi. He built there a golden temple dedicated to Sharnga-pani (Vishnu). His minister Purushottama received from him the grant of four villages, which he formed into an agrahara and donated it to several Brahmanas on the holy day of the Kapilashashthi in the Shaka year 1232. The agrahara was named Purushottamapura after the donor. It is still extant under its original name on the southern bank of the Godavari, about 40 miles due west from Parbhani. The villages together with their boundaries can still be identified in the vicinity of Purushottampuri. [ Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 208.]

A fragmentary inscription of the time of Ramachandra is built into the front wall of the temple of Lakshmana on the hill of Ramtek. In the first half it gives the genealogy of Ramachandra and in the second half it describes the temples, wells and tirthas on and in the vicinity of the hill, which it names as Ramagiri. The object of the inscription seems to have been to record the repairs to the temple of Lakshmana done by Raghava, a minister of Ramachandra.

In A. D. 1294, Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded the kingdom of Ramachandra and suddenly appeared before the gates of Devagiri. Ramachandra was taken unawares and could not hold out long. He had to pay a large ransom to the Muslim conqueror. He continued, however, to rule till A. D. 1310 at least; for the aforementioned Purushottampuri plates are dated in that year. [ Loc. cit.] He was succeeded by his son Shankaragana some time in A. D. 1311. He discontinued sending the stipulated tribute to Delhi. He was then defeated and slain by Malik Kafur. Some time thereafter, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramachandra, raised an insurrection and drove away the Muhammedans, but his success was short-lived. The Hindu kingdom of Devagiri came to an end in A. D. 1318.

Like their illustrious predecessors, the Yadavas also extended liberal patronage to art and literature. During their rule a peculiar style of architecture called Hemadpanti after Hemadri or Hemadpant, a minister of Mahadeva and Ramachandra, came into vogue. Temples built in this style are found in all the districts of Maharashtra. Several learned scholars flourished at the Yadava court. Of course, Hemadri was the foremost. During the reign of Mahadeva he held the post of Shrikarana-dhipa or Head of the Secretariat. He was appointed Minister and Head of the Elephant Force by Ramachandra. He was as brave as he was learned and liberal. He conquered and annexed to the Yadava kingdom the eastern part of Vidarbha called Jhadi-mandala. Hemadri is well-known as the author of the Chaturvargachintamanni, comprising five parts viz., (1) Vratakhanda, (2) Danakhanda, (3) Tirthakhanda, (4) Moksha-khanda and (5) Parisheshakhanda. Of these, the third and fourth khandas have not yet come to light. Hemadri's work is held in great esteem and has been drawn upon by later writers on Dharmashastra. Hemadri wrote on other subjects as well. He is the author of a commentary on Shaunaka's Pranavakalpa and also of a Shraddhakalpa, in which he follows Katyayana. His Ayurvedarasayana, a commentary on Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya, and Kaivalyadipika, a gloss on Bopadeva's Muktaphala, are also well known.

Hemadri extended liberal patronage to learned men. Among his protegees the most famous was Bopadeva. He was a native of Vedapada (modern Bedod) on the bank of the Wardha in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. Bopadeva is said to have composed ten works on Sanskrit grammar, nine on Medicine, one for the determination of tithis, three on poetics and an equal number for the elucidation of the Bhagavata doctrine. Only eight of these are now extant. The Mugdhabodha, his work on Sanskrit grammar, is very popular in Bengal.

Marathi literature also flourished in the age of the Yadavas. Chakradhara, who propagated the Mahanubhava cult in that age, used Marathi as the medium of his religious teaching. Following his example several of his followers composed literary works in Marathi. They are counted among the first works in Marathi. Mukundaraja, the author of the Vedantic works Vivekasindhu and Paramamrita, and Jnaneshvara, the celebrated author of the Bhavarthadipika, a commentary on the Bhagavadgita, are the most illustrious writers of that age.

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