YEOTMAL

GENERAL

GEOGRAPHY

[The section on Geography is contributed by Prof. B. Arunachalam, Bombay.]

Situation.

THE DISTRICT OF YEOTMAL LIES BETWEEN 19° 26' N. and 20° 42' N. LATITUDES AND 77° 18' E. AND 79° 9' E. LONGITUDES. It has an area of 13,517 Square Kilometres and a population of 1,098,470 according to the 1961 Census figures distributed among 8 towns and 1,629 inhabited villages. The district forms 4.41 per cent of the total area of the State but has proportionately a lesser share of the population viz., 2.78 per cent.

The district is known as Yeotmal after the headquarters of the district. According to Ain-i-Akbari, it derived its name from  Yot Lohara', Yot being an Urdu corruption of Yavata the original name of the town and Lohara, the name of another village about 5 km. to its west. Subsequent to the merger of the village Lohara in the town, it came to be known as Yavatmal from Yavat, the original name of the town and Mal being a corruption of Mahal or Pargana town. It might also have been derived from Marathi word Mali meaning a plain and the town having been known as plains of Yavat or Yavat plains i.e., Yeotmal.

Administrative Evolution.

Largest of the Berar districts, Yeotmal has been evolved by grouping together parts of the East Berar and Basim districts. Today, the district constitutes the south-central district of the Nagpur division (Vidarbha) of the State. The tahsils of Yeotmal, Darwha, Kelapur and Wun (or Wani as it hrs been renamed) of the East Berar district were separated and grouped to form a new district in the year 1864. This district was originally named the South-East Berar and subsequently Wun district. In the year 1905, the tahsil of Pusad was transferred from the Basim district (now Akola district) to the Wun district and simultaneously the Wun district was renamed as Yeotmal district. The administrative headquarters, since the formation of the district in 1864, has however been at Yeotmal only.

With the reorganisation of States in 1956, the district was transferred from Madhya Pradesh to the then Bombay State. The district forms a part of Maharashtra since 1st May 1960.

Boundaries.

Administratively, the district is hounded on its north-west by Washim, Mangrulpir and Murtazapur tahsils of Akola district. on the north by the Amravati and Chandur tahsils of Amravati district, on the north-east by Warora, Chanda and Rajura tahsils of Chanda district. On the south, it is hounded by the Kalamnuri tahsil of Parbhani district, Hadgaon and Kinwat tahsils of Nanded district and by the northern tahsils of Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh State.

Geographically, the river Penganga with its graceful meander curves constitutes the southern boundary of the district from a point 3 km. west of Belura village in the Pusad tahsil in the west till its confluence with the Wardha river in the east in the village Jugad of Wani tahsil. The north-eastern and eastern boundaries run along the river Wardha from the village Saujan in Yeotmal tahsil, about 6 km. south of the Pulgaon railway junction on the Bombay-Nagpur main line railway, till its confluence with the Penganga. The rest of the boundary in the west as well as the north is mostly one of administrative convenience.

For administrative purposes, the district is at present divided into five tahsils. The area, number of inhabited villages, number of towns and the density of tahsilwise population are given in the statement below:-

Relief.

General Description.

Varied and rich in its landform features, the district consists of masses of hilly country broken by broad valleys and inter-spersed to the gently sloping plains. The district as a whole belongs to the Ajanta ranges and the plateaus on its top, though the northern sections form part of the Payanghat or the Berar plains. Most of the land of the district is a high level plateau at average elevations of 350 to 450 metres sloping gently eastwards with average gradients of 2 metres per kilometre. Here and there, the plateau rises through steep slopes to higher elevations to form ridges carrying flat mesas on their tops or developing to sharp crested peaks. These ridges rise on an average 70 to 100 metres above the general level of the plateau floor.

The Scarps.

Both the northern and southern edges of the plateau are sharply denned and can be clearly recognised as distinct scarp-lines overlooking the Wardha valley in the north at an average distance of about 20 km. from the river and the Penganga valley in the south at a somewhat closer distance. Along the northern scarp, the land falls by about 200 metres within a distance of 5 km. through a picturesque hill-country, and the entire scarp-face, looking from the Wardha valley, presents an appearance of a serrated edge of a saw along which different, successive horizontal flows of Deccan lava are exposed. The southern edge of the plateau is more rugged than elsewhere and is at a higher elevation, 600 to 700 metres, before falling to the level of the valley floor of the Penganga, once again through steep gradients and cliff faces. Towards the eastern end, this plateau edge consists of a series of alternate hills and saddles and high peaks, all in the Pusad tahsil. Along the Penganga, towards the eastern boundary of the Pusad tahsil, the landscape distinctively changes as the thinning basaltic have flows get replaced by outcrops of massive archean gneisses and granites in patches, as seen clearly around the village of Karbi, facing the town of Kinwat in the Nanded district across the Penganga.

The Plateau.

While the northern scarp is scoured by gullies and rivulets draining into the Wardha and the southern scarp is full of re-entrants developed by headward erosion by the rivulets draining into the Penganga. the plateau proper is drained by the Pus, the Adan-Arunavati, the Waghadi and the Khuni rivers, all of which are tributaries of the Penganga, These rivers drain in south-easterly and easterly directions along the general dip of the plateau and have carved broad open valleys, resulting in the plateau being divided into a series of alternating broad parallel valleys separated by flat topped divides with escarpments overlooking the rivers. Thus the whole plateau falls broadly into three physical divisions from north-east to south-west; the Waghadi-Khuni valleys and the Yeotmal plateau; the Adan-Arunavati basin; and the Pus valley.

The Wardha Plains

The northern parts of Yeotmal and Kelapur tahsils and the eastern part of Wani tahsil lie in the Payanghat plains of the Wardha valley, at elevations of 200 to 250 metres. The valley section in this district is about 20 km. wide in the west and narrows down to less than 10 km. along the eastern boundary of Kelapur tahsil. Beyond, as the river takes a more southerly course and as the hills and the plateau edge recede further away from the river to the west, the plains widen to more than 20 to 25 km. in the Wani tahsil. This widening of the plains may be partly attributed to the greater infilling or alluvium brought by the Wardha as it flows lower down and partly to the fact that the thinning basaltic lava flows come to an end along the western parts of the Wani tahsil and are replaced by the softer rock formations, consisting of limestones, shales and sandstones of earlier geological horizons, that get more easily denuded to form low ground. In fact this greater geological variety of the. Wani lowlands is responsible for the considerable variety and rapid variations in the local, topography of this tahsil which are discussed in fuller details in subsequent pages.

Penganga valley.

The Penganga valley is in general narrower about 10 to 12 km. as of Pusad tahsil. The topography is more undulating than that in the Wardha lowlands and is interspersed with many residual knolls and hills of basaltic topography in the Pusad tahsil, and by clay flats backed by limestone cliffs at ' stone throw' distance from the river in Kelapur and Wani tahsils.

Rivers.

The main rivers of the district are the Wardha and the Penganga both of which flow skirting the district and forming the district boundaries. However, the district is well drained by a large number of tributaries of the two rivers, such as the Bembla nadi, a right bank tributary of the Wardha; the Pus, the Adan-Arunavati, the Waghadi, the Khuni, the Vaidharbha and the Nirguda.

Wardha river.

The river Wardha rising in the Satpuda ranges, after flowing through the districts of Nagpur and Wardha, runs north and east of this district, separating it from Wardha and Chanda districts. The Wardha is also called the Vasishtha, and is said to have been created by a Rishi (sage) of that name. It is navigable in the rains up to Kosara in the north-east corner of Kelapur taluka, where rocks form a barrier. About forty years ago a small steamer actually went up to Chinchmandal in the north of Wun taluk, but there is now no navigation [Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Yeotmal District, Vol. A-1908, p. 3.]. The bed of the Wardha is broad and deep and the river overflows its flood-plains during heavy floods. The river banks are high, about 6 to 25 metres, higher to the north than to the south in general as a result of which liability to flooding is greater in the plains of this district rather than on the opposite banks in the Wardha district. Here and there, as the river bed is cut through basaltic outcrops, rocky shoals have developed. There is generally a strong current in the river during the monsoon rains but during hot weather the river becomes a mere trickle of water with stagnant pools.

A large number of seasonal rivulets scour the northern scarp of the Yeotmal plateau and flow with an almost straight northerly or north-easterly course to drain into the Wardha. Of them, the Ramganga nadi joining the main river near Ramtirth, some 15 km. east of the market town of Ralegaon is the most important.

Bembla Nadi.

The Bembla nadi, a right bank tributary of the Wardha, is about 125 km. long; rising and flowing through the Chandur tahsil of Amravati district, the river drains eastwards the northern parts of Yeotmal tahsil for a distance of 34 km. before joining the Wardha river just north of the village, Nande Sawangi. Throughout its course in the district, the river flows through a flat plain country and has a perennial flow. The Yeotmal-Dhamangaon metal road crosses the river by a bridge, 350 metres long.

The Nirguda.

The Nirguda nadi rises on the eastern slopes of the Yeotmal plateau in the Tivsala reserved forest division and flows east and then south-east, skirting the colliery township of Wani before emptying its water in the Wardha near the village Chincholi, 3 Km. upstream of the confluence of the Penganga with the Wardha. The river has an overall length of 64 km.

The Penganga.

The Penganga rises in the western part of the Buldhana district and after a general eastward flow down the eastern slopes of the Ajanta range, joins the Wardha at Jugad in the south-eastern extremity of the Wani tahsil. The river forming the southern boundary of the district, has an overall length of 320 km. within the district limits. Though the river has a general eastward flow, it makes two spectacular bends, once north and once westwards in the eastern parts of Pusad tahsil before regaining its general eastward flow.

From the tri-junction of Akola, Parbhani and Yeotmal districts west of the village Belura in the south-west of Pusad tahsil, the river flows initially south-eastwards in a fairly entrenched valley, about 50 metres below the plateau level, making sweeping meander curves between interlocking spurs and developing fairly broad alluvial flats at the spur base in the innerside of the loop. The river bed itself is shallow, dry and sandy during hot weather. The sharp bends in the course of the river that run mostly west-east, north-north, west-south, south-east and west-south, west-east, north-east are strongly suggestive of joint control of the valley form in the basalts rather than meander loops. The valley gradually opens out as the river flows past the market villages of Mulawa and Umarkhed. The valley floor becomes less undulating, gently sloping, broad and open. As the river flows further east, the basaltic spurs of the Ajanta range approach the river much closer, and near Murli village, the river descends, cutting through the spur, in a series of rapids known as the Sahasrakund falls (or a thousand pools). The total fall in the bed level of the river, here, is about 40 metres. About ten km. downstream of the falls, the river turns north and flows in that direction. Here, the river is locally called the Banganga till it runs past village Kharbi in Pusad tahsil and the railway town of Kinwat (in Nanded district). It is said that Parasharama, son of Jamdagni, a Rishi, here made a course for the river by driving an arrow (ban) into the ground [Central Provinces District Gazetteers, Yeotmal District, Vol. A.-1908, p. 3.]. Here, the river flows over a basaltic dyke in a constricted course and forms rapids. Then, the river once again turns west and continues in its westward flow as an antidip stream till it flows by the village Fulsawangi whereafter it turns north and then east to continue on its general eastward flow. This anomalous northward and westward turns of the river may be ascribed to the river entering from the basaltic terrain into a more resistant, residual archean gneissic terrain owing to which cause, the river had to carve out its course on the fringes of the basaltic region. This very well accounts for the constricted nature of the valley and its narrow base.

The further flow of the river downstream, once it regains its general easterly trend, is through an open country traversed by the 'cuddapah' shales. However, before its confluence with the Wardha, the river, over a short stretch flows through 'Talchir' boulder beds and conglomerates.

The Pus

The Pus rising in the southern parts of the Akola district has length of 80 km. through the district, mainly in the Pusad tahsil. initially, the river flows south and then east before joining the Penganga on its left bank. In its upper course, in the north-western parts of Pusad tahsil, the river has a sinuous course in a deeply entrenched narrow valley in between spurs. Lower flown, the river valley is far from being flat and is at best a residual undulating topography with numerous residual knolls dotted over the entire valley floor. The river receives a large number of hill torrents on both its banks and strong gully action is evident everywhere along the course of the river and the torrents. The river has a more dependable flow of water throughout the year, particularly downstream of Pusad town, than the Penganga itself. This is on account of the greater rainfall in the catchment area and the deeper rock bed with banks rising to more than 10 to 20 metres on either side in contrast to the porous sandy bed of the Penganga. The river has its sangam with the Penganga just south (upstream) of the village Dhanora. For the last few kilometres before its sangam the river flows in the same structural depression as the main river Penganga but in the opposite direction.

The river has two tributaries, the Jamb nadi on its right bank and the Sip nadi on the left bank, both of which rise in the hills of the tahsil.

The Adan and the Arunavati.

Rising in the Washim tahsil of Akola district, the Adan river flows east and then south through Darwha, Yeotmal and Kelapur tahsils. The Arunavati or Arna river also rises in the southern part of Akola district and flows eastward to the south of the Adan river. The Arunavati joins the Adan about 13 km upstream of the confluence of the Adan with the Penganga. Both the rivers are seasonal and their valleys are interspersed with knolls. The Adan forms extensive clayey lowlands in the shales prior to its joining the Penganga. The water divide between the Adan and the Arunavati is low but all the same well marked.

The Waghadi.

The Waghadi river rises in the northern edge of the Yeotmal plateau and flows south past the market towns of Yelbara and Ghatanji to join the Penganga about 5 km. west of Mungi Sawargaon. It is a seasonal stream. It flows through a hilly, wooded country.

The Khuni.

The Khuni river also rises near the northern edge of the Yeotmal plateau but to the east of the Waghadi and flows south past the historic township of Pandharkaoda before joining the Penganga. It drains the eastern parts of Kelapur tahsil. It is a seasonal river, 65 km. long flowing through a hilly terrain and of practically no utility. For its size, the river valley is quite wide particularly in its lower stretch, owing to the softer shales over which the river flows.

The Vaidharbha.

The Vaidharbha nadi rises in the southern hills of Wani tahsil and flows in a south-easterly direction for about 40 km. before joining the Penganga. The valley sides of the Khuni and Vaidharbha are extensively forested.

Geographical Regions.

Interesting regional and local variations within the district are brought about due to variations in terrain, slope and water- supply on one hand and cultural impacts from the plains to the north and the area to the south-east. The area of the district falls into the following natural divisions:-

(1) The Wardha valley lowlands comprising (a) the low lands over the traps in rest of Wani tahsil; and (b) the low lands in the rest of Wani tahsil formed over earlier geological formations.

(2) The Plateau region, comprising (a) the Yeotmal Plateau, (b) the Adan-Arunavati basin and (c) the Pus valley and

(3) The Penganga lowlands in Pusad, tahsil.

The distinction between the Wardha and the Penganga lowlands on one hand and the plateau on the other is one of elevation, terrain, slope and cropping pattern.

Wardha lowlands.

The Wardha valley lowlands, drained by the Bembla nadi, the Ramganga, the Nirguda and other lesser streams all on the left bank of the Wardha, are at average elevations of 200 to 250 m. and slope through imperceptible gradients of less than a metre per kilometre eastwards. The river Wardha runs skirting the scarp edge of the Yeotmal Plateau to its north and east; to the north, it is at a uniform distance of about 20 km. while in the east, the distance is somewhat variable but always larger. In the western parts the surface alluvium is underlain by Deccan traps that thin out rapidly eastwards, with many local exposures of lameta limestones that give rise locally to pandhari soils. Eastwards, in most of the lowlands of Wani tahsil, earlier geological formations outcrop and give rise to local topographical and soil variations and a cropping pattern that differs markedly from that of the western counterpart.

Wardha valley-West.

The western part of the Wardha lowlands found in the northern parts of Yeotmal, Kelapur and Wani tahsils are covered by fairly deep and extensive kali (regur) soils derived by the denudation of the Deccan traps, and redeposited by the Wardha. These soils, uniformly fine in texture become sticky after rains. In productive capacity, the local farmers rate these soils inferior to the deeper ' kali soils' found in the Purna valley of Akola district, which may be attributed to the admixture of the intra-trappean limestones that occur close to the ground. The sub-surface water-table is close to the ground and during the rains rises to within a metre from the surface; the water in most cases is brackish.

Along the foothills, the soils tend to become coarser, more friable and porous and grade to a light brown or greyish black colour. While the slopes of the hills and escarpment are associated with poor forest cover, the lowlands are well tiled. Kharif Jowar, cotton and tur are the main crops; rabi wheat and harbara (gram) are found to a much lesser extent in the lower grounds adjoining river valleys. Of the oilseeds, only peanut is of importance; it however decreases in importance from west to east. Jowar among the cereal grains and cotton among the cash crops reign supreme in the crop pattern of the area and account for the greater prosperity and stability of agriculture here in contrast to the plateau to the south. The entire cultivation is dependent upon the monsoon rains that increases eastwards and is more copious in the later part of the monsoon season, which incidentally accounts for the late sowing of the kharif crop here in comparison to the western districts of the State. There is practically no area under irrigation and double cropping is virtually non-existent.

On the whole, the villages of these lowlands are fairly large and compact. It is striking to note that the villages, the larger ones in particular, avoid the immediate banks of the streams and the Wardha and prefer to perch on high ground or some natural prominence like a local knoll. Explanations can be easily had from the fact that the streams and the main river, though reduced to trickles during the hot weather, are so much swollen during the monsoons, that they invariably flood extensive areas of low ground adjoining their banks. The few villages that have stuck to the riverside are relatively smaller and are on high banks, about 20 to 30 metres above the river bed. It is not uncommon for the villagers to desert a village site when it is subjected to flood ravages and to occupy newer sites farther away from the flood-waters and on higher ground. Thus, for example, when the village Dhanora on the Wardha banks was flooded, the people settled on a new site, named 'New Dhanora' farther away from the river.

The largest of the villages in this fertile black cotton soil tract lie about 4 to 5 km. away from the river, strung along a line and are local nodal centres where cart tracks, unmetalled and metalled roads converge. The bigger ones are weekly or bi-weekly market centres for cotton, Jowar and wheat as well as cotton ginning and pressing centres. Babhulgaon, on the Yeotmal-Dhamangaon road, about 20 km. from Yeotmal is the largest cattle market of the plains. Ralegaon is a similar market centre, about 4 km. from the river and dependent on a perennial tank for water supply.

These plain villages, are mostly squarish in pattern and are uniformly spaced at average distance of about 3 km. from each other. Generally, there is a single village site and there are no hamlets. Most of the villages are fortified with 'gadhi' or mud-fort, particularly towards the east.

Farther away from the river, along the piedmont base of the scarp is found a second string of vintages, that are smaller and possess hamlets at the valleyneads of the streams as they debouch from the hills and develop alluvial aprons. In this piedmont region, desertion of village sites is more commonly prevalent than in the plains below. Kalamb is the biggest of these piedmont villages, on the Yeotmal-Ralegaon road; it is a compact square-shaped village with a mud fortress.

Wardha lowlands-East.

Eastwards, particularly downstream of the confluence of the Wunna with the Wardha, the landscape steadily changes. the river turns to maintain a southerly flow, the scarp edge of the plateau recedes westwards, and the width of the lowlands widens. The topography is no more even nor uniformly covered by alluvium. forest cover is more widespread even in low grounds, and activities other than agriculture gain some importance. The cropping pattern is distinctly different from that elsewhere in the district, as rabi crops are more prevalent in this region. Quick variations in the natural and cultural landscape characterise the entire region.

The western limits of these lowlands more or less coincide with the edge of the traps that present an escarpment descending down from the Yeotmal plateau at heights of about 450 to 500 m. through a series of structural benches that form distinct plateau levels overlooking the Wardha to the east and the Penganga to the south and presenting excellent panoramic vistas of the low ground below. The entire scarp is covered by tangles of jungles forming bands of vegetation on the gentler debris slopes.

East of this scarp edge, the land descends through a fairly well dissected plateau at elevations of about 300 to 350 m. to the still lower valley sides of the rivers. It is along the plateau edges and its top as well as in patches of the lower valley floor that many geological horizons of earlier rock formations are exposed giving rise to topographical variety. These areas, particularly in the southern part are covered by Vindhyan and Cuddapah formations and occasionally the Gondwanas that carry the valuable coal seams sandwiched in between. The 'Cuddapah limestones outcrop' along the top surface of the low level plateau, and excellent sections of these limestone beds are exposed along the sides of the valley of the Vaidharbha nadi that drains south into the Penganga. About 6 km. to the north-west of Kayar on his valley is a location where in a deep angle of the Deccan trap lie exposed Lameta limestones. Further east of this valley, at still higher elevations, on hill and ridge tops occur 'Kamthi sandstones'. The valley floor is covered by river alluvium. Along the Wardha are exposed in succession the 'Barakar' coal measures of the Damuda series and Talchir boulder beds and conglomerates. The colliery township of Wani is itself located on 'Kamthi beds' that trend in a southeast, north-west direction from a place 12 km. south-east of Wani to as far as Pisgaon village, that lies midway on the Maregaon-Mardi road. These beds are flanked to the west by the Deccan traps and local exposures of thin 'Lameta beds' while to the east, they are followed by the Barakar coal seams, Talchir beds and Gondwana limestones that are fine grained hard, compact and dark grey in colour. At places, these limestones are siliceous and cherty often passing out to jasper. Southwards, along the Penganga valley, the low grounds below 230 m. are occupied by horizontally stratified Cuddapah shales that are deep red in colour, line grained with a somewhat nodular structure, and much jointed but irregularly breaking up into angular fragments. Thin beds of limestone occur in them. These shales are backed by almost cliff faces of Cuddapah limestones that rise nearly 100 m. above the immediate low ground.

Outliers of basalts are common in all these horizons.

This geological variety is reflected in the physical configuration, soils and cultural landscape. The western trap uplands and structural benches are covered by shallow coarse gravelly soils and are fairly extensively covered by good quality mixed deciduous forests in patches. Ain, dhawda, tendu, bija and khair are the main species; not much of teak is found. These forests are more open on the steeper slopes, grass covered and are locally cultivated in cleared patches of terraces to raise jowar or rabi gram. The gullies and rivulets draining these slopes eastwards suddenly open out on descending the steeper slopes and form alluvial aprons of coarse deposits. Poor grasses that grow on the debris slopes provide the basis for a stable cattle grazing economy. The gaolao breed of cattle are found everywhere in this region.

Hamlets are the prevalent type of rural settlements over the area. They are mostly perched along the break of slope at the foot of structural terraces, overlooking a nallah or a rivulet, but considerably away from all the proportions and dump huge quantities of coarse debris along their banks. Cultivation, if any, is patchy and along the stream courses. Larger villages are located well above flood levels on the flat tops of structural terraces commanding a fairly large flat cultivable area that is divided into bunded fields to check sheet erosion. These villages are interlinked by unmetalled roads and cart-tracks that run skirting the contours and gaining access from one structural level to another along the valley flanks. There are quite a few forest villages and izara villages in the area. Most of these settlements depend upon seasonal streams and' wells for water-supply that becomes acutely scarce during the hot weather.

Desertion of village sites is quite frequent. Loss of forest concessions and constant fear of attack from wild animals account for the desertion of the forest villages, white on the flat tops of the plateaus, the poverty of the limy, nodular concretionary soils-locally called the pandhari soils that are derived from the intratrappean limestones that underlie the basalts at shallow depths and are hence weathered seems to be the primary cause. But most deserted sites are hamlets perched on valley-heads, and their desertion appears due to the preference for better watered sites and arable land and in some cases due to accessibility to good metalled roads and quicker modes of transport of the newer sites. The new name invariably retains the old name but with a suffix or a prefix.

This basaltic edge of the Yeotmal plateau with its small mesa-levels is followed to its east by the low level plateau in which the uplands are made up of the "Cuddapah limestones" and the "Kamthi sandstones" that locally rise to knolls of basaltic outliers. The larger rivulets like the Vaidharbha nadi have carved their open valleys deep in these rocks and have exposed along their valley flanks the lameta limestones of a stratified type in their- upper reaches while lower down, before they empty themselves into the Penganga flow through extensive "Cuddapah shales". The soil is uniformly coarse in texture and of a reddish colour.

There are quite a few perennial tanks scattered over this region, the biggest of them being near the village Mukutban and used for irrigation of some garden crops. There are quite a few mineral-springs in the region exposed along the junction of the Cuddapah limestone and the underlying shales. Those springs that are found near the villages Kayar and Chitwan are quite well-known; the former one is even used to irrigate a small area on account of its perennial nature.

Poor mixed deciduous and "salai" forests and coarse grass-cover dominate the limestone and sandstone hills; the forest-cover becomes denser and better in quality along the slopes facing south adjoining the Penganga, lower Khuni and Vaidarbha valleys. The lowlands along the rivers, particularly, the Penganga, has fairly fertile clayey and silty soils that are rendered poorer by the admixture of lime derived from the limestone higher above. Such "Pandhari" soils tend to become alkaline with continued cultivation and during the rains and cotton is steadily increasing in importance as a cash crop. During the rabi season, tur and harbara among the pulses, linseed and til among the oilseeds are grown. In fact, this part of the district and the adjoining Wardha valley are the only areas that have significant acreage under rabi crops. This appears due to the more copious rainfall especially during the later half of the monsoon season, a limited tank irrigation, more perennial streams in the limestone terrain underlain by impervious shales and the penetration of the cultural influences from across the opposite banks of the Penganga in the Andhra.

Pastoral and forest hamlets prevail on the uplands and are generally located along the periphery of the forest and pasture cover on dry flat surfaces well above flood level of the streams. Along the Penganga, the larger villages are located along the high banks, The immediate banks of the streams and rivulets present a ravined bad land topograph in miniature, thanks to active gully and bank erosion over the shales. In general, villages are fewer and farther spaced in spite of the lowland nature of the terrain in this stretch.

Along the Wardha, the plains are less undulating and about 6 to 10 km. wide. The soils are black, medium fertile and superior to those of the uplands. Cultivation is more intensive and population more dense. The valley is dominated by villages that are more compact, nucleated on water-spots and larger. Hamlets are rare. Over these lowlands, cotton and wheat increase in importance westward and jowar, rabi til and linseed eastward and southward.

The cultural landscape of the valley offers a sharp contrast to the rest of the region, in that it is marked by rapid variations in geology of underlying rock formations and the dominating influence of the colliery township of Wani or Wun as it was formerly known. Medium grade coal is mined in the Rajur-Wani area over an extent of about 33 km.² from Pisgaon village, across the Wardha river up to Warora in Chanda district. Another area where coal is mined is around the villages Pipri, Ahiri, Bergaon and Junara on the Wardha banks in continuation of the Telwasa coalfield of Chanda. Limestone deposits are at present worked in the Rajur belt, Khekari-Mauli-Gaurala belt and Kurli-Pardi-Pathri belt, the first two in the lametas and the last one in the Cuddapah limestones. Mining and quarrying have led to the springing up of townships like Wani and Rajur and for the establishment of the link railway that connects Rajur and Wani with the main Wardha-Chanda railway across the Wardha river.

Yeotmal Plateau.

The Yeotmal plateau is sharply defined by the high hills and steep scarp slopes in the north and the east that descend down to the Wardha valley but by a less well defined, lesser hill range in the south-west and west that acts as a watershed separating the Adan-Arunavati basin from the plateau. Towards the south, the plateau descends to the valley of the Penganga, more gradually in the west but through limestone cliffs in the east. The plateau is drained by the Khuni and the Waghadi rivers, both draining southwards, in which direction the land slopes in general. Higher elevations, of about 500 m. or more are observed towards the north. This region has the most undulating, uneven terrain in the entire district; locally, steep slopes and scarp faces are quite common. Numerous small plateaus buttressing slightly above the general elevation of the plateau surface dot the entire surface, especially around Yeotmal.

The soils are shallow, coarse black regurs derived from vesicular basalts over the undulating, gently sloping surfaces; these are called 'morand' soils. They are medium fertile and have a high admixture of gravels and sands. Over the hills to the east and the north, the soils are coarse gravelly, of a loose friable texture and vary in colour from light brown to grey. These soils are locally termed 'khardi', 'bardi' and 'wardi'. These soils are covered by mixed deciduous forests in the south and the ' salai' forests in the north. Cultivation is restricted to the rainy kharif season on the better soils of even topography. Jowar is overwhelmingly important. Tur, groundnut, harbara are the other food crops grown on poorer soils. Over the last few decades, cotton as a cash crop has steadily gained in area and at present occupies as large an area as jowar itself.

On approaching the Penganga valley to its south, the plateau presents poor jungle covered extensive limestone plateaus that present cliff faces to the south overlooking the Penganga valley. The limestone region with its barren whitish surface that is pitted with depressions and fluted with grikes resembles in many respects a typical 'karst' area. At the foot of the scarp, where the underlying shales get exposed, a line of spring has developed springing forth to the surface the subterranean drainage of the overlying previous limestone formations. The shale region adjoining the Penganga has developed extensive alluvial flats.

Villages in the Yeotmal plateau are fairly large, far spaced about 4 km. from each other compact and nucleated on water-holes, deriving their domestic water-supply from community bore-wells. They are mostly situated on level grounds commanding good cultivable fields around and interlinked by good metalled roads running on plateau tops almost straight for miles together. Hamlets, attached or independent, are rare over the level ground but gain ground along the hilly periphery of the plateau, where forests and grazing grounds replace cultivation and support only limited communities. The villages tend to be more closely spaced in the lower Khuni and lower Waghadi valleys and in the alluvial flats adjoining the Penganga river; assured water-supply and availability of better arable level ground seem to be responsible for this better settlement.

Culturally, it is interesting to notice that the villages in the Yeotmal plateau are not generally fortified unlike the villages of the Wardha valley to its north, and the Adan-Arunavati basin to its immediate south.

The Adan-Arunavati basin.

The Adan-Arunavati basin, comprising the entire Darwha tahsil, the south-western parts of Yeotmal and parts of Kelapur tahsil, lies between two distinctive eastward running spurs or the Buldhana plateau at average elevations of 370 m. to 460 m. and forms the only broad alluvial valleys of the uplands, within the district. To its south lies the Pus valley. There is a highly dissected, all the same well defined, flat topped water-divide that separates the Adan and Arunavati river valleys, at heights of about 400 m. The land as a whole slopes gently to the south-east towards the Penganga, into which river the Adan-Arunavati finally empties. However, along the Penganga, the descent is through a steep slope to the narrow valley base. The soils are black and shallow, but locally form deeper redeposited alluvium along the river valleys. The hill slopes have stony 'halwa' soils. The relatively richer alluvial soils and flatter terrain of the basin permit a more intensive utilisation of the land for agricultural purposes than in the plateau proper. Darwha is the only tahsil in the entire district that has the least area under uncultivable and culturable wastes; it is also the tahsil in which food crops constitute a large proportion than non-food crops. Kharif jowar and cotton account for more than four-fifths of the area under cultivation. Tur and harbara among pulses and groundnut are the minor crops. Patches of fairly dense mixed forests dot the hills and water-divides, particularly in the west and along the Penganga slopes. Grass cover is more abundant and provides the basis for a stable cattle rearing economy; grazing of Hariana, Gaolao and Murra breeds of cattle is quite common on the hill slopes not devoted to cultivation.

The medium sized, compact nucleated villages of the basin are fairly evenly and closely spaced along the stream courses and river valleys, perched on river meanders, high banks and river bluff. Most of the villages are squarish, while in cases, linear and ribbon patterns are also discernible. On the flat plateau tops and water-divides, larger villages, farther spaced, dominate. Hamlets are fewer and desertion uncommon.

The Pus Valley.

The Pus valley, that is barely a kilometre wide in its upper reaches in the north-western parts of Pusad tahsil gradually opens out to a width of about 10 to 12 km. just before its confluence with the Penganga along the eastern boundary of the tahsil. In the north-western pants of the tahsil, plain or level ground with fairly fertile alluvial deposits is extremely limited, such tracts being confined to the alluvial flats formed on the alternate bends of the Pus river in between interlocking spurs with steep slopes descending down to the river. The river is well entrenched between steep embankments and the ground gains in elevation on either side through steep slopes alternating with structural rock terraces and the debris slopes between the two. Medium sized settlements, often fortified with a gadhi, are' perched on the break of slope commanding the cultivable land below and the grazing and forest ground above.

Lower down the valley, the land is undulating with fairly gentle slopes and covered with redeposited medium deep alluvial regurs Kharif jowar and cotton are the main crops and tur, the catch crop. The river Pus provides a perennial supply of water. Villages arc well spaced, strung on the meander curves-village names "Wakdi" are strongly suggestive-and a second line of villages back them along the 350 m. contour level), being perched on level ground on the first structural terrace overlooking the valley. The second line villages, often with one or two subsidiary, dependent grazing or forest hamlets are invariably larger in size and command the cart-tracks and unmetalled roads that lead through the gaps in the water-divides to the adjoining river valleys and basins. Hence most of them form small weekly market centres.

The water-divides between the Pus and the Adan-Arunavati on one hand and the Pus and the Penganga on the other are very well defined basalt ridges. The former is lower in elevations-about 500 to 600 m. The latter ridge is about 500 m. high in the west but rises to 700 m. in the east. The fall in level towards the Pus valley on both sides is through a series of traps, giving a typical landing stair aspect to the landscape. However, the descent to the Penganga valley from the divide is much more spectacular; the south facing slope overlooking the Penganga consists of sheer vertical cliff faces and barren scarp slopes in most areas. The ghats are more difficult to manoeuvre than else where in the district. These hills, well watered with monsoon rains are covered with dense teak forests. Teak with an average girth of 2m. is a valuable timber product of these forests. Ain, kalamb, tiwas, tendu and semul are the other forest trees of these dense jungles. The forest villages and hamlets of the area are in the midst of forest clearings and on forest margins.

Penganga lowlands.

The lowlands in the extreme south, along the boundaries of the district adjoin the Penganga and are narrow - about 4 to 6 km wide on an average-but at times, the scarp edge of the plateau almost descends down to the river. Downstream of Paroti Khurd village where the river turns north and then west, it runs skirting the edge of the basic trap, and practically no valley plains are found. Kharif jowar and cotton are the predominant crops, but rabi wheat is grown in fields away from the river, well above flood levels. The Ambaone canal near Umarkhed is used to a limited extent for irrigation. Deep bore-wells supply drinking water and the size of the rural settlement depend upon the dependability and quantum of water-supply. Villages in the valley are far apart, large and compact but close to the river, they become smaller and closer. The main metalled road runs on plateau crest away from the river and ascends gradually to reach the Buldhana plateau top.

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