The Gazetteers Department

[The section on Ancient Period is contributed by M. M. Dr. V. V. Mirashi, Hon. Professor, Nagpur University. The sections. from Mediaeval Period onwards are contributed by Dr. B. G. Kunte, M.A., Ph.D. (Econ.); Ph.D. (History); Executive Editor and Secretary.]

ANCIENT PERIOD

AS NO ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS HAVE SO FAR BEEN MADE IN ANY PART OF THE YAVATMAL DISTRICT, it is not possible to give an account of it in the pre-historic period. Still from some implements found at Khair, Parsora and Dhoki, villages in this district, we know that it was occupied in the palaeolithic period. No vestiges of the succeeding pre-historic periods have, however. so far come to notice in this district. Recently archaeological excavations have been conducted at Kundinapura in the adjoining Amravati district, which was the ancient capital of Vidarbha in the Epic period, but their report has not yet been published. Still the remains there go back to the Chalcolithic period. The Yavatmal district also must evidently have been inhabited in this period. The characteristic features of the culture of this period in the Deccan region have been brought to notice in the excavations at Nevasa. They may be described as follows [Summarised from H. D. Sankalia's Indian Archaeology Today, p. 8 f.]: -

"The earliest habitations of the people of this period must have been in the river valleys. The thick forests which must have covered them were first cut down with their stone and cooper tools. The elevated sides on the banks of rivers were chosen for a settlement. Each settlement may have consisted of about 50 to 100 huts. The huts were small, measuring 10 ft. by 9 ft. and were either rectangular or round. They were constructed with wooden posts, the walls being of mud and the roof of bamboo matting, dry leaves etc., covered with a layer of mud. The houses were furnished with large and small storage jars, bowls (vatis) and vessels (lotas) with long spouts. Their red surface was painted in black with geometric designs or figures of animals. They wore garments of cotton and probably also of (wild) silk. For their ornaments they used beads or semi-precious stones, crystal, terracotta and rarely of copper and even of gold. Silver was unknown. Bangles were made of copper, burnt clay or hone, rarely of ivory.

For weapons they used products of the chalcedony blade industry, flat copper axes and slings with round balls of various sizes. Their tools were made of dolerite and copper. They pounded their grains with plano-convex rubber stones. Besides, they ate beef, mutton, pork, venison and river fish. Hunting and animal grazing formed their main occupations.

They buried their dead cither within the house floor or outside. The children were buried in wide-mouthed urns. The dead were provided with bowls, spouted vessels and necklaces of copper and carnelian.

Economically these people were in a pastoral-cum-hunting-cum-agricultural stage and lived in small villages on river banks. They still used stones for various purposes, the use of copper being rare. This kind of life continued until it was changed by a fresh influx of people who came with a knowledge of iron, agriculture and town-planning in about the fourth century B. C.

Who these people were is not known. but one plausible conjecture is that they belonged to some of the Aryan tribes. This theory, however, needs confirmation by stronger evidence. "

The above gleanings are from excavations such as those at Nevasa. We shall next see what light is thrown on this period by literary sources. According to literary tradition, when the Aryans penetrated to the Deccan, the whole region was covered by a thick jungle, which extended southward from Central India. Agastya was the first Aryan who crossed the Vindhya and fixed his residence on the bank of the Godavari. This memorable event is commemorated in the mythogical story which represents Vindhya as bending before his guru Agastya when the latter approached him. The sage asked the mountain to remain in that condition until he returned from the south, which he never did. Agastya was followed by several other sages who established their hermitages in different regions of the south. The cluster of hermitages on the bank of the Godavari was called Jana-sthana to distinguish it from the surrounding forest country. The sages living there were constantly harassed by the original inhabitants who are called Raksasas in the Ramayana. "These shapeless and ill-looking monsters testify to their abominable character by various cruel and terrific displays. They implicate the hermits in impure practices and perform great outrages. Changing their shapes and hiding in thickets adjoining the hermitages. these frightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees; they cast away their sacrificial ladles and vessels; they pollute cooked oblations and uteterly defile the offerings with blood. These faithless creatures inject frightful sounds into the ears of the faithful and austere hermits. At the time of the sacrifice they snatch away the jars, the flowers and the sacred grass of these sober-minded men[ Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts.]

In course of time a large kingdom was founded north of the Godavari by Vidarbha, the son of Rsabhadeva. His capital was Kundinapura in the adjoining Amravati district. The country has since then become known by the name of Vidarbha. Agastya married Lopamudra, the daughter of king Vidarbha. Agastya is the Seer of some hymns of the Rgveda. His wife Lopamudra is also mentioned in Rgveda, I, 179, 4. The country became well-known in the age of the Brahmanas and the Upanisads, in which it is frequently mentioned. The Ramayana, in the Uttarakanda, states the story of king Danda, or Dandaka, in whose time Vidarbha was devastated by a violent dust-storm. Danda was a son of Iksvaku and grandson of Manu. He ruled over the country between the Vindhya and Saivala mountains from his capital Madhumanta. He led a voluptuous life and once upon a time he violated the daughter of the sage Bhargava. The sage then cursed the king that his whole kingdom would be devastated by a terrible dust-storm. The whole country between the Vindhya and Saivala mountains, extending over a thousand yojanas, was consequently turned into a great forest, which since then came to be known as Dandakaranya. It was in this forest that the Sudra ascetic Sambuka was practising penance. As this was an irreligious act according to the notions of those days, Rama beheaded him and revived the life of a Brahmana boy, who had died prematurely. The place where Sambuka was beheaded is still shown on the hill of Ramtek, about 28 miles from Nagpur.

The Central part of the Deccan was divided into several countries known by different names. Thus the region to the north of the Godavari, now included in the Aurangabad district was known by the name of Mulaka. This country together with its capital Pratisthana (modern Paithan) is mentioned in Pali literature. To the north of it lay the country of Rsika, now called Khandes. Along the southern bank of the Godavari extended the country of Asmaka Pali, Assaka), which comprised the modern Ahmadnagar and Bid districts. Later, this region came to be included in the country of Kuntala, which extended far to the south. It included what is now known as the Southern Maratha Country as well as North Karnataka and the Simoga and Citaldurg districts of the old Mysore State. In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th Century A.D.) Pratisthana [Udayasundarikatha (G. O. Series) pp. 21 and 83.] on the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country'. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharastra. The Aihole inscription (7th century A. D.) speaks of three Maharastras, which probably comprised Vidarbha, Western Maharastra and Kuntala. In later times Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kanarese country now included in the Mysore State. It is described as a seven and half lakh province. The Early Calukyas of Badami and the Later Calukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntalendras or lords of Kuntala. In the earlier days, however, the districts of Kolhapur, Satara, Solapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid, which are now Marathi-speaking, were included in Kuntala. As we shall see later, the early Rastrakutas, who were ruling over this territory were known as Kuntalesvaras (or rulers of Kuntala).

The Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas mention several sacred rivers of Vidarbha such as the Payosni (Purna), Varada (Wardha), and the Vena (Wainganga) and name several holy places situated on their banks. The royal house of Vidarbha was matrimonially connected with several princely families of North India. The Vidarbha princesses Damayanti, Indumati and Rukmini are well-known in Indian literature. Several great Sanskrt and Marathi poets from Kalidasa onwards have drawn the themes of their works from their romantic lives.

Coming to historical times, we find that all this territory in Vidarbha was included in the Empire of Asoka. An inscription issued by the Dharmamahamatra of Asoka has been found at Devtek in the Canda district, which adjoins the Yavatmal district. It was issued in the fourteenth regnal year of Asoka and interdicts the capture and killing of animals. [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second Ed.), p. 125.] Again, the fifth and thirteenth rock-edicts of Asoka mention the Rastrika Petenikas and the Bhoja-Petenikas. According to many scholars, the Petenikas were the inhabitants of Pratisthana, the Rastrikas ruled as Maharathis in Maharastra, while the Bhojas held Vidarbha.

After the overthrow of the Maurya dynasty in circa 184 B. C. the imperial throne in Pataliputra was occupied by the Sendpati Pusyamitra, the founder of the Sunga dynasty. His son Agnimitra was appointed Viceroy of Malva and ruled from Vidisa modern Besnagar, a small village near Bhilsa. Vidarbha, which had seceded from the Mauryan empire during the reign of one of the weak successors of Asoka, was then ruled by Yajnasena. He imprisoned his cousin Madhavasena, who was a rival claimant for the throne. The sister of Madhavasena escaped to Malva and got admission as a hand-maid to the queen Dharini under the name of Malavika. Agnimitra, who had espoused the cause of Madhavasena, and had sent an army against the king of Vidarbha, fell in love with Malavika and married her. The Malava army defeated the king of Vidarbha and released Madhavasena. Agnimitra then divided the country of Vidarbha between the two cousins, each ruling on one side of the Varada (Wardha). The Yavatmal district was included in Western vidarbha. The story of Malavika forms the plot of the Sanskrt play Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa.

Kalidasa does not state to what royal family Yajnasena and Madhavasena belonged and these names do not occur anywhere else. Still, it is possible to conjecture that they may have been the feudatories of the Satvahanas. From the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Bhuvanesvar, we learn that Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, who was a contemporary of Pusyamitra sent an army to the west, not minding Satakarni. The latter evidently belonged to the Satavahana dynasty as the name occurs often in that family. Kharavela's army is said to have penetrated up to the river Kanhabenna' and struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rsika. The Kanhabenna is evidently the river Kanhan [ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. Ill, p. 46.], which flows about 10 miles from Nagpur, and not the river Krsna, which flows south-west, not west, of Udayagiri. Kharavela's army thus invaded Vidarbha. He knew that as the ruler of Vidarbha was a feudatory of king Satakarni, the latter would rush to his aid. When Vidarbha was thus invaded, the people of Rsika (Khandes), which bordered Vidarbha on the west, were naturally terror-stricken. No actual engagement seems, however, to have taken place and the army returned to Kalinga perhaps at the approach of the Satavahana forces.

Satakarni belonged to the Satavahana family. This family derived its name from king Satavahana [Ibid.,Vol.III,p. If.], who rose to power soon after the death of Asoka and had his capital at Pratisthana (modern Paithan). It received support from the local rulers called Maharathis, with whom it formed matrimonial alliances. This dynasty is called Andhra in the Puranas, but that it originally hailed from Western Maharastra is indicated by its earliest inscriptions which are found in the caves at Naneghat near Junnar and at Nasik. Its earliest coins have been found at Aurangabad and in Vidarbha. In later times it extended its rule to Andhra as shown by its later inscriptions and coins found in that region. The Puranas call it Andhra evidently because it was ruling in that country when the Puranic account was compiled in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Though Satavahana was the founder of this family, he is not mentioned in the Puranas. The first king of the Andhra (i.e., Satavahana) dynasty mentioned in the Puranas is Simuka (Srimukha), who is also known from a relievo statue of his in a Naneghat cave. We do not know the extent of his kingdom, but it is surmised to have spread at least from Junnar to Pratisthana (Paithan). When he ended his rule, his son Satakarni was a minor and so his brother Krsna ascended the throne. He has left an inscription in a cave which he got excavated for the Buddhist monks at Nasik. The next ruler of the dynasty was Satakarni I, who is also known from a relievo figure now mutilated in a Naneghat cave. He married Naganika, the daughter of Maharathi Tranakayira, who also was represented by a relievo statue in the same Naneghat cave. He seems to have extended his rule over the whole of the Deccan and even carried his arms north of the Narmada. King Kharavela of Kalinga, who was his contemporary, sent an army to the west, not minding Satakarni, who is probably this. very ruler. When the army reached Kanhabenna, which, as shown above, is probably the Kanhan flowing near Nagpur, it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rsika (Khandes). There was no actual clash of arms on this occasion, but two years later, Kharavela probably penetrated further west as he claims to have received submission from the Rathikas and the Bhojakas, who were probably ruling in the Deccan as feudatories of the Satavahanas.

Satakarni performed the Rajasuya and Asvamedha sacrifices (the latter twice), which probably commemorated important victories or supremacy in the Deccan and as such, had political significance. He also performed several other Srauta sacrifices such as Agnyadheya, Aptoryama, Dasaratra, Trayodasaratra, Angirasa-triratra, Sataratra, Gavamayana etc., all of which were marked by munificent gifts of horses, elephants and Karsapanas. They are recorded in a large, but now sadly mutilated, inscription in a cave at Naneghat. Vidarbha was evidently included in the dominion of SatakarnI.

Satakarni left behind two sons, Vedisri and Saktisri, who are mentioned in the aforementioned Naneghat inscription. Vedisri, who succeeded him, is described as a very brave prince whose army was always victorious and who became the lord of Daksinapatha (Deccan) [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 76 f.]. He was succeeded by a number of rulers, who are mentioned in the Puranas, but about whom they furnish little information except their reign-periods, which also vary in the different Puranas. But one name among them is noteworthy. It is that of king Hala, the reputed author of the Gathasaptasati, a unique collection of seven hundred Prakrt verses descriptive of the social, religious and economic life of the period. Hala flourished in the first century AD. [Ibid., Vol. I,p. 76]

Some years after Hala's reign Maharastra was conquered by the Saka Ksatrapas. Nahapana. a Saka Ksatrapa, probably appointed by the contemporary Kusana Emperor, was ruling over Konkan, Pune, Nasik and some other districts of Western Maharastra as also some portions of Central India as far north as Ajmer. Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Ksatrapa named Rupiamma as disclosed by a pillar inscription recently discovered at Pawni in the Bhandara district [Nagpur University Journal, Vol. XVI, p. 1 f.]. The Satavahanas were therefore obliged to leave Western Maharastra and Vidarbha and repair to the southern part of their dominion, but Gautamiputra made a daring dash into Vidarbha and occupied Benakata or the Wainganga district. Thereafter, he invaded Western Maharastra and defeated Nahapana somewhere in the Nasik district. This is shown by his inscription if one of the Nasik caves, wherein he is called Benakatakasuami or the lord of the Wainganga district. He extended his rule to a large part of the Peninsula as his chargers are said to have drunk the water of three oceans. The following provinces are specifically mentioned as comprised in his dominion:-Rsika (Khandes), Asmaka (Ahmadnagar and Bid districts), Mulaka (Aurangabad district), Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti (Eastern and Western Malva), Suratha (Kathiavad) and Aparanta (Konkan). That his empire extended much further is shown by the description that Setagiri (near Nagarjunikonda), Sristana Kurnul district) and Mahendra (between the Godavari and the Krsna) were situated in his kingdom.

After defeating Nahapana, Gautamiputra called back the silver coins of the Saka Ksatrapa Nahapana and restruck them. The Jogaltembhi hoard contained more than 10,000 silver coins so counterstruck. He himself issued a large number of potin coins with the figure of an elephant with uplifted trunk on the obverse and the Ujjain symbol on the reverse [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. III, P. 38 f.]. In the hoard of potin coins found at Tarhala in the Akola district of Vidarbha, out of nearly 1,200 decipherable coins as many as 575 were of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Pulumavi, who also ruled over an extensive kingdom but seems to have lost some northern provinces like Akaravanti (Eastern and Western Malva), and Surastra (Kathiavad) to the Ksatrapas. He is mentioned by Ptolemy as ruling from Pratisthana. He was succeeded by his brother Vasisthiputra Satakarni who married the daughter of the Saka Ksatrapa Rudradaman I. Among his successors the most noteworthy was Yajnasri Satakarni, whose inscriptions and coins have been found over a large area. They show that he ruled over an extensive empire stretching from Konkan in the west to Andhradesa in the east. He issued among other types the ship-type lead coins indicative of his rule over the maritime province of the Coromandel Coast [Ibid., Vol. III, P. 17 f.].

Within fifteen years after Yajnasri Satakarni, the rule of the Satavahanas came to an end. The Satavahanas were liberal patrons of learning and religion. As stated above, the early kings of the family performed Vedic sacrifices and lavished gifts on the Brahmanas. Krsna, Gautamiputra, Pulumavi and Yajnasri excavated caves and donated villages to provide for the maintenance, clothing and medicine of the Buddhist monks. As stated above the Gathasaptasati (or Sattasai), an anthology of 700 Prakrt verses, is by tradition, ascribed to king Hala of the family. Another Prakrt work of the age was the Brhatkatha of Gunadhya. It was written in the Paisaci Prakrt. The original Prakrt work is not now extant, but two Sanskrt versions of it viz., the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva and the Brhakatha-manjari of Ksemendra are well known. Gunadhya was a native of the town of Supratistha, which, from some references in the grants of the Vakatakas, is known to have been situated in the Hinganghat tahsil of the neighbouring Wardha district. It may perhaps be identical with the village Pothara, situated a small river of the same name, which joins the Wunna. The ahara or territorial division of Supratistha may have comprised some portion of the Yavatmal district.

About A.D. 250 the Satavahanas were supplanted by the Abhiras in Western Maharastra and the Vakatakas in Vidarbha. The founder of the Abhira dynasty was Rajan Isvarasena, the son of Sivadatta, who has left an inscription in a cave at Nasik. He started an era commencing in A.D. 250, which later became wellknown as the Kalacuri-Cedi era. Judging by the expansion of this era, Isvarsena and his descendants seem to have ruled over a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Northern Maharastra [Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Chedi Era (C. I.I., Vol. IV), p. XXXIV.]. Isvarsena was followed by nine other kings, whose names do not, unfortunately, occur in the Purdnas, which only state that they ruled for 167 years. From a casket discovered at Devni Mori in Gujarat, we know the name of one of these kings as Rudrasena. His family name Kathika also has become known from the same source. He was ruling in the year 127 of the Abhira era, corresponding to A.D. 376-77[ Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 120 f.]. The Abhiras were supplanted by their feudatories the Traikutakas in circa A.D. 415.

The names of three Traikutaka kings are known from their inscriptions and coins viz., Indradatta, Dahrasena and Vyaghrasena. Dahrasena performed an Asvamedha and was therefore an independent king; but his son and successor Vyaghrasena had to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Vakataka king Harisena [C.I.I.,Vol. IV, p.xl f.].

After the downfall of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas rose to power in Vidarbha. This dynasty was founded by a Brahmana named Vindhyasakti I, who is mentioned in the Puranas as well as in an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. His son Pravarasena I, called Pravira in the Puranas, ousted Sisuka, the daughter's son of the Naga king of Vidisa, who was ruling at Purika at the foot of the Rksavat (Satpuda) mountain. Pravarasena I ruled over an extensive part of the Deccan. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including four Asvamedhas and assumed the title of Samrat (Emperor). According to the Puranas, he ruled from the aforementioned city of Purika. He had four sons, among whom his extensive empire was divided after his death. Two of these are known from inscriptions. The eldest son Gautamiputra predeceased him. His son Rudrasena I held the northern parts of Vidarbha and ruled from Nandivardhana near Ramtek in the Nagpur district. He had the powerful support of king Bhavanaga of the Bharasiva family, who ruled at Padmavati near Gwalior and who was his maternal grandfather. Rudrasena I was a fervent devotee of Mahabhairava. He had no regard for the Ahimsd precepts of Asoka. He had therefore no scruples in getting some portion of the aforementioned Devtek inscription of Asoka's Dharmamahamatra chiselled off and in having his own record incised in its place [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I (Second Ed.), p. 125 f.]. The latter proclaims the construction of his dharmasthana (temple) at Cikkamburi (modern Cikmara near Devtek).

Rudrasena I was followed by his son Prthivisena I, who ruled for a long time and brought peace and prosperity to his people. During his reign this branch of the Vakatakas became matrimonially connected with the illustrious Gupta family of North India. Candragupta II - Vikramaditya married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Prthivisena's son Rudrasena II probably after securing the Vakataka king's aid in his war with the Western Ksatrapas. Rudrasena II died soon after accession, leaving behind two sons, Divakarasena and Damodarasena alias Pravarasena II. As neither of them had come of age, Prabhavatigupta ruled as regent for the elder son Divakarasena for at least thirteen years. She seems to have been helped in the administration of the kingdom by military and civil officers deputed by her father Candragupta II. One of these was the great Sanskrt poet Kalidasa, who while, remaining at the Vakataka capital Nandivardhana, must have often visited Ramagiri (modern Ramtek), which lay only three miles away. The theme of his excellent lyric Meghduta seems to have suggested itself to him at this place.

Prabhavatigupta has left us two copper-plate inscriptions. The earlier of them, though discovered in distant Pune originally belonged to the Wardha district. It was issued from the then Vakataka capital Nandivardhana and records the dowager queen's grant of the village Danguna (modern Hinganghat) to a Brahmana after offering it to the feet of the Bhagavat (i.e., the god Ramacandra) on Karttika sukla dvadasi evidently at the time of the parana after observing a fast on the previous day of the Prabodhini Ekadasi. Some of the boundary villages mentioned in the grant can still be traced in the vicinity of Hinganghat. These villages were situated in the ahara or territorial division of Supratistha. The latter seems to have comprised roughly the territory now included in the Hinganghat tahsil and also perhaps some portions of the adjoining tahsils of the Canda and Yavatmal districts [ Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Vakatakas (C. I. I., Vol. V), p. 6 f.].

Divakarasena also seems to have died when quite young. He was succeeded by his brother Damodarasena, who, on accession, assumed the name Pravarasena of his illustrious ancestor. He had a long reign of thirty years and was known for his learning and liberality. More than a dozen grants made by him have come to light. One of them made at the instance of his mother Prabhavatigupta in the nineteenth regnal year is noteworthy. The plates recording the grant were issued from the feet of Ramagirisvamin (i.e., god Ramacandra on the hill of Ramagiri, modem Ramtek) and register the grant which the dowager queen made as on the previous occasion after observing a fast on the Prabodhini Ekadasi [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 34 f.] .

Pravarasena II founded a new city, which he named Pravarapura and where he shifted his capital some time after his eleventh regnal year. He built there a magnificent temple of Ramacandra evidently at the instance of his mother, who was a devout worshipper of that god. Some of the sculptures used to decorate the temple have recently been discovered at Pavnar on the bank of the Dham, six miles from Wardha and have led to the identification of Pravarapura with Pavnar in the Wardha district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 272 f.]

Pravarasena II is the reputed author of the Setubandha, a Prakrt kavya in glorification of Ramacandra. This work has been highly praised by Sanskrt poets and rhetoricians. According to a tradition recorded by a commentator of this work, it was composed by Kalidasa, who ascribed it to Pravarasena. The latter is also known as the author of some Prakrt gathas, which were later incorporated in the Gathasaptatsati [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 81 f.]

Pravarasena II was succeeded by his son Narendrasena during whose reign Vidarbha was invaded by the Nala king Bhavadattavarman. The latter penetrated as far as the Nagpur district and even occupied Nandivardhana, the erstwhile capital of the Vakatakas. The Radhapur plates record the grant which Bhavadatta made while on a pilgrimage to Prayaga. The plates were issued later from Nandivardhana, which was his capital at the time [Ep, Ind., Vol. XIX, p. 100 f.]. The village granted was Kadambagirigrama, which is probably identical with Kalamb a few miles from Yavatmal. It is situated among hills and so the description giri-grama suits it very well.

In this emergency the Vakatakas had to shift their capital again. They moved it to Padmapura near Amganv in the Bhandara district. A fragmentary inscription which was proposed to be issued from Padmapura, has been discovered at the village Mohalla in the adjoining Durg district of Madhya Prades [ C. I. I. Vol.V.p. 76 f.]. This Padmapura is probably identical with the birth place of the great Sanskrt playwright Bhavabhuti, who flourished there in a later age.

The Nalas could not retain their hold over Vidarbha for a long time. They were ousted by Narendrasena's son Prthivisena II, who carried the war into the enemy's territory and burnt and devastated their capital Puskari, which was situated in the Bastar district in Madhya Prades. Prthivisena, taking advantage of the weakening of the Gupta power, carried his arms north of the Narmada. Inscriptions of his feudatory Vyaghradeva have been found in the former Ajaigadh and Jaso States in Central India [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 89 f.]

The elder branch of the Vakatakas came to an end about A. D. 490. The territory under its rule was thereafter included in the dominion of the other or Vatsagulma branch, to which we may now turn.

The Vatsagulma branch was founded by Sarvasent, a younger son of Pravarasena I. Its capital was at Vatsagulma, modern Basim (Vasim) in the Akola district. This branch also produced some brave and learned princes. Sarvasena, the founder of this branch, is well-known as the author of the Prakrt kavya Harivijaya, which has, for its theme, the bringing down of the Parijata tree from heaven. This kavya has received unstinted praise from several eminent rhetoricians like Anandavardhana [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 99 f.]

Sarvasena was followed by his son Vindhyasena, called Vindhyasakti II in the Basim plates, which he issued in the 37th regnal year [C.7.I,Vol.V,p.93f.]. These plates record the grant of a village situated in the northern marga (sub-division) of Nandikada (modern Nanded in the Marathvada Division).

Vindhyasena pursued a vigorous policy and defeated the lord of Kuntala, who probably belonged to the Early Rastrakuta dynasty of Manapura as shown below. Like his father and grandfather, he assumed the title Dharmamaharaja. His Basim plates record the earliest grant of the Vakatakas known so far. The genealogical portion of the grant is written in Sanskrt and the formal portion in Prakrt. This shows how the classical language was gradually asserting itself under the patronage of the Vakatakas. All the earlier grants of the Satavahanas, as is well known, are in Prakrt while all the later grants of the Vakatakas are in Sanskrt.

Vindhyasena was followed by his son Pravarasena II, about whom little is known. The Ajanta inscription says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. He seems to have had a short reign; for when he died, his son was only eight years old. The name of this boy prince is lost in the Ajanta inscription. He was followed by his son Devasena, whose fragmentary copperplate inscription is now deposited in the India Office, London [Ibid., Vol, p. 101 f.]. Another record of his reign inscribed on stone, was recently discovered at Basim. It is dated in the Saka year 380 (A.D. 458-59), and records the excavation of a tank named Sudarsana by Svamilladeva, a servant of Devasena [Dr. Mirashi Felicitation Volume, p. 372 f.].

Devasena had a very righteous and capable minister named Hastibhoja He looked after the affairs of the State and pleased all subjects. Devasena entrusted the government of his kingdom to him and gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures.

Devasena was succeeded in circa A.D. 475 by his son Harisena. He carried his arms in all directions. A mutilated verse in an Ajanta cave inscription states that he conquered Avanti (Malva) in the north, Kosala (Chattisgadh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west, and Kuntala (Southern Maratha country) in the south [C.I. I., Vol. V, p. 106f.]. He thus became the undisputed suzerain of the entire country extending from Malva in the north to Kuntala in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Harisena is the last known Vakataka king. As we have seen, he had an extensive empire in the Deccan. The causes which led to the sudden disintegration of that mighty empire are not recorded in history, but the last chapter of the Dasakumaracarita of Dandin, who flourished only about 125 years after the fall of the Vakatakas, seems to have preserved a living tradition about the last period of Vakataka rule [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 165 f..] It seems that Harisena's son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the Science of politics (dandaniti). He gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices, neglecting the affairs of the State. His subjects imitated him and led a vicious and dissolute life. Finding this a suitable opportunity, the crafty ruler of the neighbouring Asmaka country sent his minister's son to the court of Vidarbha. The latter ingratiated himself with the king and egged him on in his dissolute life. He also decimated his forces by various means. Ultimately, when the country was thoroughly disorganised, the ruler of Asmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (North Kanara District) to invade Vidarbha. The king of Vidarbha called all feudatories to his aid and decided to give battle to the enemy on the bank of the Varada (Wardha). But while he was fighting with the forces of the invader, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories and was killed on the battlefield. Thus ended the Vakataka kingdom after a glorious rule of two hundred and fifty years.

The Vakatakas were patrons of art and literature. In their age the Vaidarbhi riti came to be regarded as the best style of poetry and several excellent poetical works were then produced in Vidarbha. Kalidasa also adopted the same riti for his works. Some Prakrt kavyas were also produced in this period, two of which, viz., the Harivijaya of Sarvasena and the Setubandha of Pravarasena have been mentioned above. Three of the caves at Ajanta, viz., the two Vihara caves XVI and XVII and the Caitya cave XIX were excavated and decorated with paintings in the time of Harisena. Several temples of Hindu gods and goddesses were also built. The ruins of one of them have come to light at Pavnar [Ibid., Vol. II. p. 272 f.]. Others are known from references in copper-plate grants.

According to the Puranas, the Vakataka king Pravarasena 1 had four sons, all of whom ruled as kings. Two of them are known from inscriptions. As stated before, the eldest of them was Gautamiputra, whose son Rudrasena I founded the Nandivardhana branch. The second son was Sarvasena, who established himself at Vatsagulma. Where the remaining two sons were ruling is not known definitely. But one of them may have been ruling over Southern Maharastra. He seems to have been overthrown by Mananka. the founder of the Early Rastrakuta dynasty. The history of this family has been unfolded during the last few years. From three copper-plate grants which have been discovered in Southern Maharastra, we get the following genealogy [ Ibid., Vol. I, p. 178 f.]: -

Mananka, the progenitor of the family, flourished in circa A.D. 350. He founded Manapura, which he made his capital. He is described in one of the grants as the ruler of the Kuntala country. As stated before, Kuntala was the name of the upper Krsna valley in ancient times. The places mentioned in some of the grants can be identified in the Satara and Kolhapur districts. Their capital Manapura is probably identical with Man, the headquarters of the Man taluka of the Satara district [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 184.].

These Rastrakutas of Manapura sometimes came into conflict with the Vakatakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The Pandarangapalli plates of Avidheya state that Mananka harassed the rulers of Asmaka and Vidarbha. On the other hand, an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta states that the Vakataka king Vindhyasena (i.e., Vindhyasakti II) defeated the king of Kuntala, who was evidently of this Early Rastrakuta family.

From certain passages in the Kumtalesvaradautya, a Sanskrt work ascribed to Kalidasa, which have been cited in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara, the Srngaraprakasa and the Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja and the Aucityavicaracarca of Ksemendra, we learn that the famous Gupta king Candragupta II-Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa to the court of the king of Kuntala. Kalidasa was at first not well received there, but he gradually gained the Kuntalesa's favour and stayed at his court for some time. When he returned, he reported to Vikramaditya that the lord of Kuntala was spending his time in enjoyment, throwing the responsibility of governing the kingdom on him (i.e., on Vikramaditya). This Kuntalesa was probably identical with Devaraja, the son of Mananka [Ibid. Vol. I. p. 10.]. Through the influence of Candragupta II, the two royal families of the south viz., the Vakatakas and the Early Rastrakutas were reconciled with each other. Later, Harisena, the last known Vakataka king, raided Kuntala and exacted a tribute from its king. It is noteworthy that in the eighth ucchvasa of the Dasakumaracarita the king of Kuntala is described as a feudatory of the Emperor of Vidarbha.

After the downfall of the Vakatakas in the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Vidarbha was occupied for some time by the Visnukundin king Madhavavarman I. This is shown by some Visnukundin coins found at Pavnar [T. N. S. I., Vol. XXVIII, p. 164 f.] and some other places of Vidarbha. Madhavavarman was a very powerful king. He married a Vakataka princess who was probably a daughter or some near relative of the last known Vakataka Emperor Harisena. He took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the downfall of the Vakatakas and extended his dominion far and wide. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including eleven Asvamedhas. That he had brought even Western Maharastra under his rule is shown by his copper-plate grant discovered at Khanapur in the Satara district [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 312 f.]. His grandson Madhavavarman 11 describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya. So, he may have ruled in Western Maharastra for some time.

But the Visnukundins were ousted from Maharastra and Vidarbha by the Kalacuri king Krsnaraja, who rose to power about A.D. 550. He ruled from Mahismati, modern Mahesvar in the former Indore State. His coins have been found at Dhamori in the Amravati district. That Vidarbha was included in his Empire is shown by the Nagardhan plates of his feudatory Svamiraja dated in the Kalacuri year 322 (A.D. 573) [C. I. I., Vol. IV, p. 611 f.]. These plates were issued from Nandivardhana, which seems to have retained its importance even alter the downfall of the Vakatakas. Svamiraja probably belonged to the Rastrakuta family.

Krsnaraja was succeeded by his son Sankaragana, whose copper-plate grant has been discovered at Abhona in the Nasik district. It is dated in the Kalacuri year 347 (A.D. 597). His other inscriptions have been discovered in Gujarat. He was succeeded by his son Buddharaja, who was involved in a fight with the Early Calukya king Mangalesa on the southern frontier of his kingdom soon after his accession. Before we describe this engagement we must briefly review the history of the Early Calukyas of Badami.

The Calukyas of Badami rose to power in the second half of the sixth century A.D. The Badami stone inscription of Pulakesin I, who is the first independent ruler of this dynasty, is dated in A.D. 543 [Ep. Ind.,Vol.XXVII,p.4f.]. He performed the Asvamedha and several Srauta sacrifices. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I, who made some conquests in South India and is described as the night of destruction to the Nalas (of the Bastar district), the Mauryas (of Konkan) and the Kadambas (of Vanavasi in North Kanara).

When Kirtivarman I, died, his son Pulakesin II was a minor. So, Kirtivarman's younger brother Mangalesa succeeded him. He defeated Buddharaja, the Kalacuri king, who was ruling in North Maharastra, Konkan, Gujarat and Malva, and also Svamiraja of the Calukya family, who was ruling over Revatidvipa (modern Redi in the Ratnagiri district).

Mangalesa's reign ended in disaster and he lost his life in a civil war with his nephew Pulakesin II. Just about this time the Calukya Kingdom was invaded from the north by one Govinda, who probably belonged to the aforementioned Earyly Rastrakuta family. Pulakesin adopted conciliatory measures in dealing with him as he was a powerful foe. His descendants do not, however, appear to have held Southern Maharastra for a long time; for Pulakesin soon annexed both Southern and Northern Maharastras and extended the northern limit of his Empire to the bank of the Narmada. That he ousted the Rastrakutas from Southern Maharastra is shown by the Satara plates of his brother Visnuvardhana, which record the giant of a village on the southern bank of the Bhima. Pulakesin also defeated the Kalacuri king Buddharaja and annexed his kingdom. He is said to have thereby become the lord of three Maharastras, including Vidarbha. The Rastrakutas of Vidarbha, who were previously feudatories of the Kalacuris, transferred their allegiance to the Calukyas of Badami and like the latter, began to date their records in the Saka era. Two grants of this feudatory Rastrakuta family have been found in Vidarbha one, dated Saka 615, was found near Akola and the other, dated Saka 631, was discovered at Multai in the Betul district [Ibid. Vol. XXIX. p. 109 f.; Ind. Ant., Vol. XVIII, p. 230 f.], previously included in Vidarbha. They give the following genealogy: -

Pulakesin obtained a resounding victory over Harsa, the lord paramount of North India. Thereafter, he assumed the title of Paramesvara (Emperor). He defeated the rulers of several countries such as Aparanta (Konkan), Kosala (Chattisgadh), Kalinga (Orissa), Pistapura (Pithapuram) and Kanci (Conjeevaram). He made the Colas, the Keralas and the Pandyas his allies. He thus became the undisputed lord of South India.

During the reign of Pulakesin II the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Maharastra. He has left us the following graphic picture of the country and its people [S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (pub. by Susil Gupta), Vol. IV p. 448 f.]. "The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies, relentless. If they are insulted they will risk their lives to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemies a warning; then, each being armed, they attack each other with spears........ If a general loses a battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him with women's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself........ Each time they are about to engage in conflict, they intoxicate themselves with wine and then one with a lance in hand, will meet ten thousand and challenge them to fight........ Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, which, rushing forward in mass, trample every thing down so that no enemy can stand before them. The king in consequence of possessing these men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the Ksatriya caste and his name is Pulakesin."

Pulakesin was killed in battle at Badami in circa A. D. 642 by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, who conquered Vatapi (Badami) and assumed the title of Vatapi-konda.

During the reign of Vikramaditya II, a descendant of Pulakesin II, Gujarat was invaded by a formidable force of the Tajikas (Arabs). The Navsari plates of Avanijanasraya Pulakesin, a prince of the Gujarat Calukya family, give a graphic description of this battle. The Arabs had already defeated the Saindhavas, the Cavotakas, the Surastras, the Mauryas and the Gurjaras and were attempting to penetrate into the Daksinapartha (Deccan), but Avanijanasraya-Pulakesin inflicted a crushing defeat on the invaders. The Calukya Emperor then honoured Avanijanasraya with several titles, one of which was Anivartakanivartaytr (the Repeller of the unrepellable) [C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. 1386.].

Kirtivarman II the last of these Early Calukyas, was defeated by the Rastrakuta prince Dantidurga some time before A. D. 754, when he issued his Samangad plates. Kirtivarman continued to rule for a few years more, but he had lost the paramount position in the Deccan. Dantidurga was the real founder of the Rastrakuta Imperial power [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 16 f.]. His Ellora cave inscription mentions five ancestors beginning with Dantivarman, but we know nothing about them. The family probably belonged to the Aurangabad district where its earliest records have been found. The earlier members of the family were probably feudatories of the Early Calukyas. Dantidurga made extensive conquests. The Ellora cave inscription records his victories over the rulers of Kanci, Kalinga, Srisaila, Malava, Tanka and Lata, but these do not all seem to have resulted in the acquisition of territory. His war elephants are said to have rent asunder the banks of the Mahanadi, the Mahi and the Reva. Though there is much exaggeration in the description of his conquests, there is no doubt that he conquered Karnataka, Maharastra, Vidarbha and Gujarat.

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krsna I, who completed the conquests and shattered the power of the Early Calukyas. One of his inscriptions has been discovered at Bhandak in the Canda district and is dated in the Saka year 694 (A. D. 772). It records the grant of the village Nagana to a temple of the Sun in the town of Udumbaramanti and bounded on the east by Nagamagrama, on the south by Umvaragrama, on the west by Antaragrama and on the north by Kapiddhagrama. AM these villages as well as the town of Udumbaramanti can be identified in the Yavatmal district. Udumbaramanti is represented by the modern village Rani Umravati. The king's camp was situated at Nandipuradvari which is identical with Nandura on the river Bembla, about 5 miles from Nandura. The village Nagana is modern Ganori. The boundary villages can also be identified in its vicinity. They are Naiganv, Umari, Antarganv and Babulganv, respectively. This is the first record of the Rastrakutas to be discovered in Vidarbha [Ep. Ind., Vol. XIV, p. 121 f.].

Krsna was not only a great conqueror but also a great builder. He got the great Siva temple at Ellora originally called Krsnesvara, but now known as Kailasa, cut out of solid rock. It is one of the noblest monuments of India. A contemporary inscription tells us that the great architect who excavated it was himself surprised to see it finished and despaired of repeating the feat.

In Vidarbha also the Rastrakutas built several magnificent temples. Those at the village at Markandi in the Canda district, where the Wainganga takes a northern bend, are specially noteworthy. The most beautiful among these is the Markandeya temple dedicated to Siva. Cunningham has described it as follows [Cunningham, A S. R., Vol. IX, p. 145f.]:-"The general style of the Markand temple is like that of Khajuraho temples, with three rows of figures all round, two feet, three inches in height. In each of these rows there are 45 human figures, making 135 in the lower part of the temple. Higher up than these there is a row of geese and a row of monkeys, and above these there are four more rows of human figures. The whole surface of the temple is, in fact, literally covered with statues and ornaments. Altogether I counted 409 figures; and there are about half as many lions and elephants forming divisions between human statues. About one half of the panels are given to Siva and Parvati in various forms. There are also many subordinate female figures, some dancing, some playing musical instruments and one holding a mirror, while putting antimony to her eye-lids."

The Rastrakuta family produced several great conquerors, who boldly invaded north and south India and achieved memorable victories. Dhruva (A. D. 780-793) was the first among them. He defeated both the Gurjara-Pratlhara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala, who were contending for supremacy in North India, and pressed as far as the Doab. Since then the two sacred rivers Ganga and Yamuna began to appear on the Rastrakuta banner.

Govinda III, the son and successor of Dhruva, proved to be a still greater conqueror. After obtaining an easy victory over the Ganga king Muttarasa ruling in Gangavadi, be led victorious campaigns in Central and Northern India. He first defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata and his ally Candragupta in Central India and then routed Dharmapala of Bengal, who had espoused the cause of Cakrayudha of Kanauj. He next marched victoriously to the north until his horses drank and his elephants plunged into the spring waters of the Himalayas. He then returned to the Narmada and marching along the bank of the river, he conquered the Malava, Kosala, Kaliga, Vanga, Dahala and' Odra countries. He then spent the rainy season at Sribhavana (modern Sarbhon in Gujarat) and afterwards marched with his forces to the bank of the Tungabhadra. Using Alampura (or Helapura) on the bank of the river as his base, he led his campaigns against the Keralas, the Colas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. Even the king of Lanka submitted to him, sending two status one of himself and other of his minister to his camp at Helapura [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXI, p. 157F.].

Several copper-plate grants of Govinda III have been found in Vidarbha. The earliest of them was that found at Anjanavati in the Amaravati district [Ibid.,Vol.XXIII,p.8 f.]. It is dated in Saka year 722 (A. D. 800) and records the grant of the village Anjanavati on the occasion of a solar eclipse. Three more grants of the same king were found at Sirso in the Akola district and are dated in the Saka years 725, 729 and 734 [Ibid., Vol. XXXII, p. 157 f.;Vol. XXIII, p. 204 f.; Vol. XXIII, p. 212 f.]. Another was discovered recently at Dharur in the Bid district of the Marathvada Division. It is dated in the Saka year 728 (A. D. 806) and records the donation of the village Anahe (modern Aneganv) in the visaya (district) of Dharaura (modern Dharur). The boundary villages mentioned in the grant can be identified in the vicinity of Dharur [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, p. 285 f.]

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Sarva-Amoghavarsa I, who was a man of peaceful disposition, but whose reign was full of troubles. He had first to fight with the Eastern Calukyas of Vengi, then the Gangas of Gangavadi and his own relatives in Gujarat. He transferred his capital to Manyakheta (modern Malkhed). He loved and encouraged science and literature and treated all religions with equal reverence. He voluntarily retired from public administration to engage himself in religious pursuits. On one occasion he offered a finger of his hand to the Goddess Mahalaksmi of Kolhapur to ward off a public calamity. Such instances are rare in the history of any country.

Another noteworthy king of the Rastrakuta family was Indra III, the great-grandson of Amoghavarsa I. Like his illustrious ancestors Dhruva and Govinda III, Indra also led victorious campaigns in North India. He followed the route of Bhopal, Jhansi and Kalpi in the course of his invasion of Kanauj, the imperial capital of India for more than three hundred years. At Kalpi his army was encamped in the courtyard of the temple of the Sun-god Kalapriyanatha, well-known to Sanskritists as the place where all the plays of the Sanskrt poet Bhavabhuti were staged [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 35 f.]. His horses crossed the Yamuna at Kalpi and then marched on Kanauj, which he completely devastated. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala fled to Mahoba to seek the help of his Candella feudatory Harsa. Indra III's northern campaign was a memorable event unparalleled for its brilliance in the history of the Rastrakutas.

Recently, a grant of Indra III made on the occasion of his coronation has been found at Jambganv in the Gangapur taluka of the Aurangabad district. It is dated in the Saka year 835 (A. D. 914) and records the donation of the village Khairondi near Pratisthana (modern Kharvandi near Paithan). The boundary villages also can be identified in its vicinity [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXVI, p. 223 f.]

Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsa II, but he died within a year and was followed by his younger brother Govinda IV. The latter was known for his liberality and rightly had the biruda Suvarnavarsa (the gold-rainer). On the occasion of his coronation he donated six hundred agrahara villages and three lakhs of gold coins to Brahmanas and eight hundred villages, four lakhs of gold coins and thirty-two lakhs of silver coins (drammas) to temples. Recently, another copper-plate grant of his dated in the Saka year 851 (A. D. 929), has been discovered at the village Andura in the Akola district of Vidarbha [Ibid., Vol. XXXVI, p. 257 f.]. It records the donation of the village Elauri (modern Erali near the railway station Nandura on the Central Railway). Most of the boundary villages can he identified in its vicinity.

The Rastrakutas of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed) and the Kalacuris of Tripuri (Tevar near Jabalpur) were matrimonially connected and their relations were generally cordial. But in the reign of Govinda IV they became strained. The Kalacuri king Yuvarajadeva I espoused the cause of his own son-in-law Baddiga-Amoghavarsa III, the uncle of Govinda IV, and sent a large army to invade the Rastrakuta dominion. When the army reached the Payosni (modern Purna), a pitched battle was fought near Acalapura between the Kalacuri and Rastrakuta forces, in which the former became victorious. This event is commemorated in the Sanskrt play Vidahasalabhanjika of Rajasekhara, which was staged at Tripuri in jubilation at this victory [C. I. I., Vol. IV, p lxxviii f.].

The Rastrakuta feudatories who rose in rebellion against Govinda IV, deposed him and placed his uncle Baddiga - Amoghavarsa III on the throne. The latter was a man of quiet nature and spiritual temperament, who left the administration entirely to his ambitious and able son Krsna III. like some of his illustrious ancestors, Krsna III also led an expedition in North India and captured the forts of Kalanjara and Citrakuta. He succeeded his father in A. D. 938. He then led an expedition against the Colas and defeated them in a sanguinary battle at Takkola in North Arcot district. He next led his victorious arms to Ramesvaram, where he built two temples. Hearing of his resounding victories, the kings of Kerala, Pandya and Ceylon submitted to him. He also placed his own nominee on the throne of Vengi. He became thus the lord paramount of the whole of South India.

A grant of Krsna III was discovered at Deoli, about 11 miles from Wardha. It is dated in the Saka year 862 corresponding to A. D. 940-41 and registers the donation of the village Talapuru-saka in the district of Nagapura-Nandivardhan. The village was bounded on the east by Madatadhindhara, on the south by the river Kanhana. on the west by the village of Mohamagrama and on the north by Vadhrira. Some of these boundaries can be identified. The district of Nagapura-Nandivardhana which evidently meant Nandivardhana near Nagapura, roughly corresponded with the present Nagpur district, which includes Nandivardhana, now called Nandardhan, about three miles from Ramtek. The river Kanhana is plainly the Kanhan which flows 10 miles from Nagpur. Mohamagrama is Mohaganv in the Nagpur district, about 20 miles north of Nagpur. It lies about three miles north of the Kanhan. Vadhriragrama, which was one of the boundary villages is probably identical with Paindhree, about two miles north-east of Mohaganv. The other places mentioned in the grant cannot be identified. [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. II, p. 253 f.]

After the downfall of the Vakatakas there was no Imperial capital in Vidarbha. The centre of political power shifted successively to Mahismati, Badami and Manyakheta. Men of learning, who could not get royal patronage in Vidarbha, had to seek it elsewhere. Bhavabhuti, who ranks next only to Kalidasa in Sanskrt literature, was a native of Vidarbha. In the prologue of his play Mahaviracarita he tells us that his ancestors were known as Udumbara. They probably hailed originally from a place of that name, which may be identical with Umarkhed in the Yavatmal district. There is a tradition still current at the place", which corroborates this. The ancestors of Bhavabhuti later moved to Padmapura in Vidarbha as stated by Bhavabhuti in his plays Mahaviracarita and Malatimadhava. As stated before, this place was once the capital of the Vakatakas and is probably identical with Padmapur near Amganv in the Bhandara district. With the downfall of the Vakatakas that place lost its importance. In the beginning of the eighth century when Bhavabhuti flourished, there was no great king ruling in Vidarbha. Bhavabhuti had, therefore, to go to Padmavati, the capital of the Naga kings in North India, now called Padam Pavaya, and had to get his plays staged at the fair of Kalapriyanatha (the Sun-god at Kalpi). Later, he obtained royal patronage at the Court of Yasovarman at Kanauj. Rajasekhara, another great son of Vidarbha, was probably born at Vatsagulma (modern Basim in the Akola district), which he has glorified in his Kavyamimamsa as the pleasure-resort of the god of love. He and his ancestors Akalajalada, Tarala and Surananda had to leave their home country of Vidarbha and had to seek patronage at the court of the Kalacuris of Tripuri. Rajasekhara's earlier plays viz., the Balaramayana, the Balabharata and the Karpura-manjari were put on the boards at Kanauj under the patronage of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Later, when the glory of the Prati haras declined as a result of the raids of the Rastrakuta king Indra, who was assisted by the Kalacuri king Yuvarajadeva I, Rajasekhara seems to have returned to Tripuri. There his last play Viddhasatabhanjika was staged as stated before. Another great poet of Vidarbha who had to go abroad in search of royal patronage was Trivikramabhatta. the author of Nalacampu, in which he has given a graphic description of several towns, holy places and rivers of Vidarbha. He flourished at the court of the Rastrakuta king Indra III and is known to have drafted the two sets of the Bagumra plates of that king.

The Rastrakuta power became weak after the death of Krsna III. Within six years his large empire crumbled like a house of cards. Taila II, the founder of the Later Calukya dynasty, who was a Mahasamanta of the Rastrakutas, suddenly came into prominence. He defeated and killed in battle Karka II, the last Rastrakuta king, and captured his capital Manyakheta. He had to fight against the Colas, the Pandyas and the Paramaras. The Paramara king Vakpati-Munja planned to invade the Calukya dominion, but his wise minister Rudraditya advised him not to cross the Godavari, which was the boundary between the Calukya and Paramara dominions. Munja did not heed his advice and was taken prisoner by Tailapa. He was placed in a prison where he was waited upon by Tailapa's sister Mrnalavati. He fell in love with her and foolishly disclosed to her the plan of his escape. She communicated it to Tailapa, who is said to have made him beg from door to door and then beheaded him.

Among the successors of Tailapa II, the most famous is Vikramaditya VI, the founder of the Calukya-Vikrama Samvat. He ascended the throne in A.D. 1075. He had to fight against the Colas, the Calukyas of Gujarat and the Hoysalas and signally defeated them. Two inscriptions of his reign have been found in Vidarbha. One of them called the Sitabaldi pillar inscription seems to have originally belonged to the Vindhyasana hill at Bhandak in the Canda district. It is dated in the Saka year 1008 (A.D. 1087) and registers the grant of some nivartanas of land for the grazing of cattle made by a feudatory called Dhadibhandaka [Ep. Ind., Vol.III,p. 304 f.]. The other inscription was discovered at Dongarganv in the Yavatmal district. It sheds interesting light on the history of the Paramara dynasty. It shows that Jagaddeva, the youngest son of the Paramara king Udayaditya, the brother of Bhoja, left Malva and sought service with Vikramaditya, who welcomed him and placed him in charge of some portion of Western Vidarbha. The Dongarganv inscription is dated in the Saka year 1034 (A.D. 1112) [Ibid., Vol. XXVI, p. 177 f.] Another inscription of this Jagaddeva has come to notice at Jainad in the adjoining Adilabad district of Andhra Prades It records several victories of Jagaddeva in Andhra, Dora samudra and near the Arbuda mountain, and registers the construction of a temple of Nimbaditya by his minister Lolarka.

The territory to the east of the Wardha river was, however, soon reconquered by the Paramaras. The Nagpur Museum stone inscription, which seems originally to have belonged to Bhandak, in the Canda district, mentions that Laksmadeva. the son and successor of Udayaditya, endowed a temple evidently at Bhandak, with the gift of two villages. The surrounding country continued in the possession of Naravarman. the brother and successor of Laksmadeva, as the Nagpur Museum stone inscription belongs to his reign. It is dated in Vikrama Samvat 1161 (A.D. 1104-5).

Vikramaditya's reign is renowned on account of some learned men who flourished at his court. Bilhana, who was patronised by him, wrote the Vikramankadevacarita, which is his poetical biography. Another famous author who flourished at his court was Vijnanesvara, the author of the well-known commentary Mitaksara on the Yajnavalkyasmrti.

The decline of the Calukya power commenced soon after the reign of Vikramaditya VI. Taila III, the last Calukya king, was overthrown by the Kalacuri Bijjala, who was his Commander-in-Chief, in A.D. 1157. The Kalacuri usurpation lasted for more than two decades. Bijjala's reign is noted for the rise of the Lingayat sect.

In the last quarter of the twelfth century A.D. the Yadavas of Devagiri came into prominence. They had previously been ruling over Seunadesa (Khandes) as feudatories of the Calukyas, but Bhillama, the son of Mallugi, declared his independence and made himself master of the whole territory north of the Krsna. He then founded the city of Devagiri, which he made his capital. His son Jaitrapala killed Rudradeva of the Kakatiya dynasty on the field of battle and released his nephew whom he had put into prison. Under Jaitrapala's son Singhana the power of the family greatly increased. We get considerable information about his victories from four stone inscriptions of his general Kholesvara at Ambe Jogai in the Bid district. Kholesvara was a native of Vidarbha, but was residing at Ambe, where he has left his inscriptions. Some more details are furnished by a later copper-plate grant of Ramacandra found at Purusottampuri in the Bid district [ Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 199 f.]

Singhana achieved several victories. He defeated the Hoysala king Vira-Ballaja, the Kakatiya king Ganapati and Laksmidhara, the lord of Bhambhagiri, modern Bhamer in the Pimpalner taluka of the Khandes district. He confined Bhoja II of the Silahara family on the hill of Pranala i.e., Panhala, a strong fort about 12 miles to the north-west of Kolhapur. Most of these victories were won by his Brahmana general Kholesvara. The latter vanquished also Arjunavarmadeva, king of Malva, and even pressed as far north as Varanasi, where he put Ramapala to flight. Kholesvara constructed several temples in Vidarbha and also established agraharas on the banks of the Payosni and the Varada. The former agrahara still exists under the name of the village Kholapur in the Amravati district.

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krsna, who obtained victories over the kings of Gurjara, Malava, Cola and Kerala. The Gurjara king was Visaladeva and the Malava ruler was Jaitugideva. The contemporary Cola king was Rajendra III (A. D. 1246-1279). The Kosala king was evidently the contemporary ruler of Ratanpur in Chattisgadh, who was probably the successor of Jajalladeva defeated by Singhana, but no records of his reign have been discovered. An inscription of the reign of Krsna has been found in the temple of Khandesvar in the Amravati district. It is dated in the Saka year 1177 (A. D. 1254-55) and records the donations of some gadyanas for the offerings of flowers in the temple of Khandesvara [Ibid., Vol. XXVII, p. 9 f.].

Krsna was succeeded by his brother Mahadeva. From the recently discovered Kaleganv plates [Ibid., Vol. XXXII, p. 31 f.] we know the exact date of his coronation as the 29th August 1261. The most notable event of his reign was the annexation of North Konkan after defeating Somesvara of the Silahara dynasty. He left the throne to his son Amana, but the latter was soon deposed by Krsna's son Ramacandra, who captured the impregnable fort of Devagiri by means of a coup d'etat. He won several victories mentioned in the Purusottampuri [Ibid.,Vol.XXV,p.205.] plates dated in the Saka year 1232 (A. D. 1310). He is said to have defeated with ease the ruler of Dahala (i.e., the Cedi country), subjugated the ruler of Bhandagara (modern Bhandara) and dethroned the king of Vajrakara (Vairagadh). He is further credited with a victory over Muhammedans, whom he drove out from Varanasi. He built there a golden temple dedicated to Sarngapani (Visnu). His minister Purusottama received from him the grant of four villages, which he formed into an agrahara and donated it to several Brahmanas on the holy day of the Kapilasasthi in the Saka year 1232. The agrahara was named Purusottamapura after the donor. It is still extant under its original name on the southern bank of the Godavari, about 40 miles due west from Parbhani. The villages together with their boundaries can still be identified in the vicinity of Purusottampuri [Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 208.].

A fragmentary inscription of the time of Ramacandra is built into the front wall of the temple of Laksmana on the hill of Ramtek. In the first half it gives the genealogy of Ramacandra and in the second half it describes the temples, wells and tirthas in and in the vicinity of the hill, which it names as Ramagiri. The object of the inscription seems to be to record the repairs to the temple of Laksmana done by Raghava, a minister of Ramacandra.

In A. D. 1294 Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded the kingdom of Ramacandra and suddenly appeared before the gates of Devagiri. Ramacandra was taken unaware and could not hold out long. He had to pay a large ransom to the Muslim conqueror. He continued, however, to rule till A. D. 1310 at least; for the aforementioned Purusottampuri plates are dated in that year [Loc. cit.]. He was succeeded by his son Sankaragana some time in A.D. 1311. He discontinued sending the stipulated tribute to Delhi. He was then defeated and slain by Malik Kafur. Some time thereafter, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramacandra, raised an insurrection and drove away the Muhammedans, but his success was short-lived. The Hindu kingdom of Devagiri came to an end in A. D. 1318.

Like their illustrious predecessors, the Yadavas also extended liberal patronage to art and literature. During their rule a peculiar style of architecture called Hemadpanti after Hemadri or Hemadpant, a minister of Mahadeva and Ramacandra, came into vogue. Temples built in this style are found in all the districts of Maharastra [In the Yeotmal district Hemadpanti temples are found at Kalamner, Kurhad, Javalgaon, Jugad, Zadgaon, Tapona, Dabhadi, Dudhgaon, Ner, Pathrot, Pandhardevi, Lak, Larkhed, Lohara, Varud and Vai.]. Several learned scholars flourished at the Yadava court. Of these, Hemadri was the foremost. During the reign of Mahadeva he held the post of Srikaranadhipa or the Head of the Secretariat. He was appointed Minister and Head of the Elephant Force by Ramacandra. He was as brave as he was learned and liberal. He conquered and annexed to the Yadava kingdom the eastern part of Vidarbha called Jhadi-mandala. Hemadri is well-known as the author of the Catur-vargacintamani, comprising five parts, viz., (1) Vratakhanda (2) Danakhanda, (3) Tirthakhanda, (4) Moksakhanda and (5) Parisesakhanda. Of these, the third and fourth khandas have not yet come to light. Hemadri's work is held in great esteem and has been drawn upon by later writers on Dharmasastra. Hemadri wrote on other subjects as well. He is the author of a commentary on Saunaka's Pranavakalpa and also of a Sraadhakalpa, in which he follows Katyayana. His Ayurvedarasayana, a commentary on Vagbhata's Astangahrdaya, and Kaivalyadipika, a gloss on Bopadeva's Muktaphala, are also well-known.

Hemadri extended liberal patronage to learned men. Among his protegees the most famous was Bopadeva. He was a native of Vedapada (modern Bedod) on the bank of the Wardha in the Adilabad district of Andhra Prades. Bopadeva is said to have composed ten works on Sanskrt grammar, nine on medicine, one for the determination of tithis, three on poetics and an equal number for the education of the Bhagavata doctrine. Only eight of these are now extant. The Mugdhabodha, his work on Sanskrt grammar, is very popular in Bengal.

Marathi literature also flourished in the age of the Yadavas. Cakradhara, who propagated the Mahanubhava cult in that age, used Marathi as the medium of his religious teaching. Following his example, several of his followers composed literary works in Marathi. They are counted among the first works in Marathi. Mukundaraja, the author of vedantic works Vivekasindhu and Paramamrta, and Jnanesvara, the celebrated author of the Bhavarthadipika, a commentary on the Bhagavadgita, are the most illustrious writers of that age.

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