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Hindu Dharmasastra considers that it is obligatory for every person to marry as according to it, vivaha i.e., marriage is one of the sarira samskaras i.e., sacraments sanctifying the body, through each of which every man and woman must pass at the proper age and time. But, though marriage is thus universally prescribed for all Hindus, the institution is hedged in with several rules and restrictions which fall under two main heads, viz., endogamy and exogamy.

A Hindu may not marry outside his caste or his particular sub-caste which according to social custom is considered endogamous. He is confined for the choice of a wife within this group. Thus, the internal structure of the Kunbis,. shows several endogamous sub-castes recruited from different classes of the population. Similarly, the Brahmans have a number of sub-castes which intermarry among themselves. The customs of others have already been detailed.

The caste or sub-caste forms the outer circle, within which a man must marry. Inside it is a set of further sub-divisions which prohibit the marriage of persons related through males. These are called exogamous groups or classes and their names among the higher castes is gotra. The theory is that all persons belonging to the same gotra are descended from the same male ancestor and so related. The system of exogamous gotra based as it is on descent from males, suffices to prevent the unions of persons nearly related on the father's side, but not those on the mother's side which are, therefore, regulated by another set of rules. In the twice-born castes, marriage is usually avoided between persons related on the mother's side within three or sometimes even five degrees. The marriage of the children of two sisters is prohibited in Northern castes and is rare in the Southern. The marriage of the children of a brother and a sister, called a cross-cousin marriage, which is common in Southern castes is prohibited in most Hindustani castes. Among Maratha communities, Marathas, Kunbis, Malis, Mahars etc., the marriage of a brother's daughter with a sister's son is common. The other form of a cross-cousin marriage i.e., the marriage of a brother's son with a sister's daughter is practised by some Gonds and by some less civilized tribes among whom it is spoken of as dudhlotna (giving back the milk). Among some castes of Telugu origin and among Desastha Brahmans, a brother has the first claim to his sister's daughter as his own wife, an idea which would be looked upon with horror by the Northern or Maratha Hindus. The marriage of two sisters at the same time was once permitted in most of the lower castes and in all tribes and was common among those castes which were specially polygamous, but the elder sister might not be married after the younger. There seems to be a general rule that a man should marry a woman of his own generation.

Hypergamy relates to the social rule by which a woman should be married to a man who is either her equal or superior in rank. Only a few cases of hypergamy are found among Brahmans, Marathas and others in the district. Marathas also lay claim to Rajput ancestry and take daughters from the Kunbis in marriage for their sons but do not give their daughters to Kunbis.

Hinduism permits polygyny. The Smrtis not only prescribe that a man who has entered grhasthasrama must not remain single and should take another wife without delay to keep up religious rites, but also ask him to take another wife during the life-time of the first who has no son. Even then polygyny has been practised through the ages only by a few people. A Kunbi would take a second wife only if the first was childless or devoid of attractions. Among the Kaikadis, the consent of the first wife must be obtained before taking a second one. In recent years, the spread of modern liberal ideas has made almost all educated communities among Hindus monogamous, though some isolated cases of there being a multiplicity of wives might be noticed. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 has now completely reformed the law relating to Hindu marriage all over India and has made monogamy compulsory among all classes of the Hindus.

Widow Marriage and Divorce.

The marriage of a widow was once strictly prohibited among the Brahmans, it being argued that marriage was the only sacrament (samskara) for a woman and she could go through it but once. Even now though legally permissible widow marriages are not very common in higher Hindu communities. Only in a minority among the most advanced classes of Hindus, widow marriage is held unexceptionable. Similarly, divorce was not once recognised at all among advanced Hindu communities like Brahmans. Many a lower caste in the district allows both widow remarriage and divorce. The coli-patali custom has already been referred to.

Dowry.

The Hindu Smrtis have recognised eight forms of marriage i.e., methods of validating a marriage union. But in modern times, only two of them are in vogue viz., the brahma and the asura. Conforming to the brahma form of marriage, generally among high caste Hindus, a hunda (dowry i.e., property which a woman beings to her husband) is paid by the bride's parents to the bridegroom. Among lower castes, the bride's parents usually take dej (bride-price) thereby conforming to the asura form of marriage. The monetary aspect in the settlement of a marriage may take various forms, e.g., among the Marathas, a salankrta kanyadana. The bride's father, besides the ornaments he gives to his daughter, spends on many items of expenses on both the sides; in kanyadana the expenses of the bride's father are much restricted; in varapaksa vadhupaksa the parties bear their own expenses, stand each other's manpan and the groom's party gives a party to all; in the hunda from the girl's father pays bridegroom price to the boy's father while in the dej form as the proposal of the marriage comes from the boy's father, he has to pay the dej i.e., bride-price to the girl's father. There is some legislation against demanding hunda, i.e., extortionate money from the bride's father, but in practice it is circumvented by one device or another because both the parties to the marriage settlement conspire as it were against the legislation.

Enactments.

Social, usage in relation to Hindu marriage has been considerably affected by various legal enactments passed perhaps right from 1833 when the regulation prohibiting sati was promulgated. A common form of civil, marriage for all communities in India was provided by the Special Marriage Act of 1872, which made it possible for an Indian of whatever caste or community or creed to enter into a valid marriage with a person belonging to any caste or creed, provided the parties registered the contract of marriage, declaring inter alia that they did not belong to any religion. This Act was amended by Act XXX of 1923, making it possible for Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and Hindus (but not Christians, Jews, Muslims and Parsees) to declare their religion and yet get their marriage registered. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, XIX of 1929 as amended by Act XIX of 1946 prohibited marriages of boys under 18 years of age and girls under 14 years of age. The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act, XXXVIII of 1946 validated marriage between parties belonging to different sub-divisions of the same caste and now the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 which has abrogated and modified all past legislation has made Hindu marriage strictly adult and monogamous. It has done away with the caste and gotra restrictions which limited the field of marital choice. It has also laid down definite conditions under which a decree of nullity and further of dissolution of marriage could be obtained.

As marriage from the Hindu point of view created an indissoluble tie between the husband and the wife, divorce was not known to Hindu law. Neither party to the marriage could, therefore, divorce the other unless it was allowed by custom as among the lower Hindu castes. The Indian Divorce Act, 1869, provided inter alia for dissolution of marriage, but it applied only to cases where "the petitioner or respondent professed the Christian Religion" (section 2 of the Act). However, according to the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, reliefs by way of judicial separation, declaration of nullity of marriage and divorce are recognised (sections 10 to 13).

Marriage Ceremonies.

In common consultation, the priests from the sides of the bride and the bridegroom fix the day and hour of the auspicious event and letters, to distant relatives inviting them to attend the ceremony with their families, are despatched.

The essential rituals which obtain among higher caste Hindus are Vagniscaya, Simantapujana, Madhuparka, Antarpat, Saptapadi and Airanipradana. In interpretation of these injunctions laid down by Hindu Dharmasastra, the following ceremonies are gone through in a popular way.

Aksad.

When the wedding day is fixed, invitations go round beginning with the house gods. On an auspicious day, the relatives of the bride and bridegroom go together in a procession to the temples of Ganapati and Devi to invite the god and the goddess. Coconuts, betel-nuts and leaves with kumkum are offered and the priest accompanying the procession invokes the god and the goddess to be present at the wedding and ward of all evil. Next a married pair from each party go round inviting friends and relations.

Simantapujana.

In the evening previous to the marriage day, the ceremony of Simantapujana or worship at the boundary takes place. The parents of the girl with their relatives go to the bridegroom's house with gifts. There they first worship Ganapati (represented by a betel-nut and Varuna (represented by a waterpot), a lamp and the earth. Then they wash the feet of the bridegroom and offer him a dress. The bride's mother washes the feet of the bridegroom's mother and fills the laps of the mother and her female relations with wheat and pieces of coconut kernel. The assembled guests are given betel-leaves and nuts and Brahmans are given money gifts.

Vagniscaya.

The ceremony of oral agreement generally takes place at night. The bridegroom's parents and their relations go to the bride's house with a dress and ornaments for the bride. The fathers of the bride and the groom exchange a coconut and embrace each other. The bridegroom's father presents the bride with the dress and ornaments brought for her. After the distribution of betel-leaves and betel-nuts to those present they disperse.

Halad.

Halad (turmeric) ceremony: In the morning of the wedding day, the girl is smeared with turmeric paste at her house by some married ladies on both sides, the remaining portion of which is taken to the boy's house where he is smeared with it in the same way.

Devaka-Pratistha.

Devaka-pratistha or installation of gods: Before the ceremony begins, the bride with her parents is bathed in hot water by some unwidowed women. After changing clothes and bowing to the house-gods and elders, the bride's parents begin the ceremony which consists of the worship of planets (represented by betel-nuts), Ganapati, Varuna and Avighna Kalasa. The last is an earthen jar daubed with white and red stripes. It contains turmeric roots, betel-nuts, a copper coin and sweetmeats. Its mouth is covered with an earthen lid tied to it with a piece of cotton thread passed round several times. It is prayed to ward off all evil,. This ceremony takes place at the house of the bridegroom too.

Gauripujan.

Gauripujan: This is performed by the bride. She worships in the house the goddess Parvati or Gauri and sits there till the wedding time praying to the goddess with words, "Gauri, Gauri, grant me a happy wifehood and long life to him who is coming to my door. "

Rukhvat.

Rukhvat: When the time for the wedding draws near, a party from the bride's side takes several dishes of sweetmeats to the bridegroom's house and serves them to the bridegroom and his relations. The bridegroom is presented with articles of dress by the bride's father. The priest asks the bridegroom to bow to the house gods and elders. The bridegroom, with a garland of flowers around his neck rides a horse or is seated in a car. He is taken in a procession to the bride's house, the females walking just behind him and the males behind the females.

Mangalastaka.

Mangalastaka: When the procession reaches the bride's house, cooked rice mixed with curds is waved on the face of the bridegroom and thrown away. Next, the bride's mother washes the feet of the bridegroom's mother who returns to her place as she must nor hear the marriage verses. The bridegroom is then led to the marriage booth where the priests lay two puts and ask the bride and the bridegroom to stand on them facing each other. They are each given a garland of flowers to hold and are told to look at the auspicious cross (Swastika) drawn on the curtain held between them. They are asked to pray to their family gods, Mangalaksata (reddened rice) are distributed among the guests. The priests standing on either side of the curtain start chanting mangalastakas (auspicious verses) and they and the assembled guests and relatives throw reddened rice at the pair as each verse comes to an end and the priests utter the word savadhana (Attention). When all the verses are over and the auspicious moment is reached, the curtain is withdrawn to the north amidst the clapping of hands and blowing of pipes and beating of drums. The eyes of both the bride and the bridegroom nicer and the bride first puts the garland round the neck of the bridegroom who does likewise immediately. Then they throw the mixture of rice grains etc., over each other's heads. Guests, relations and friends are then entertained. Each is given a flower bouquet, a sprinkle of rose water, a smear of altar and pan supari. They are regaled with spiced milk or sweet drinks. Money (daksina) is distributed among Brahman priests.

Kanyadan.

Kanyadan: An elaborate rite by which the parents of the bride hand over the bride to the bridegroom's care and request him to treat her well during her life time is then gone through

Lajahoma.

Marriage Sacrifice or Lajahoma: The pair is led to the altar where fire is kindled. The priest asks them to worship the fire and throw parched rice and ghee into it. Next, he asks them to take mutual oaths that they will be each other's partners during their life-time for weal or woe. These oaths are taken in the presence of the fire, the earth, the priest and gods.

Saptapadi.

Saptapadi: Seven small heaps of rice are made on the altar and betel-nut is placed on each of them. The priest recites mantras and the bridegroom lifts the bride's right foot and places it on the heaps in succession. When the seventh heap is crossed the marriage becomes complete.

Sutravestana and Kankanabandhana.

Sutravestana and Kankanabandhana: The priest passes cotton thread round the pair twelve times which is then taken off and divided into two parts. The bride and bridegroom are made to fasten these on each other's wrists.

Sadi or Robe Ceremony.

The bride is presented with a Sadi and coli, i.e., a robe and a bodice and her lap is filled with wheat, a coconut and some fruits by the priest and some unwidowed women.

Sunmukh.

The bridegroom's mother puts on the bride all the ornaments made for her and looks at her face. She presents the daughter-in-law with new clothes and puts sugar in her mouth.

Zala.

Zala or Airanipradana: An airani or a zala is a wicker-work basket containing several gifts such as coconuts, betel-nuts, fruits, sweets, etc. It is presented by the bride's father to the bridegroom's mother and other relatives. The basket is held on the head of the person to be honoured and while some water is poured on it, the priest on behalf of the bride's father says. "We have given you this good-natured daughter, well-nourished and healthy and we request you to treat her kindly"

Varat.

Varat: The procession, of both of the bride and the groom in which the latter takes the former to his house in a carriage with music and accompanied by males and females on both sides is then arranged.

Laksmipujan.

Laksmipujan: On arrival at the bridegroom's house, the pair worship the goddess of wealth.

Naming Ceremony.

Naming ceremony: The maiden name of the bride is changed and she is given a new name by which she is known after wardsin her husband's family. Betel-packets and sugar are distributed to the party assembled and daksina, to the Brahmans. A ritualistic closure to the marriage ceremony is put with the rites whereby the deities that had been invited before the ceremony began are bid a farewell and the marriage booth dismantled. Socially, exchange of feasts ends the ceremony.

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